MASTER  NEGATIVE 

NO.  93-81423- 


MICROFILMED  1993 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES/NEW  YORK 


as  part  of  the  .     ^ 

"Foundations  of  Western  Civilization  Preservation  Project 


Funded  by  the 
NATIONAL  ENDOWMENT  FOR  THE  HUMANITIES 


Reproductions  may  not  be  made  without  permission  from 

Columbia  University  Library 


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A  UTHOR: 


GOLDSMITH,  [OLIVER] 


TITLE: 


THE  GRECIAN  HISTORY, 
FROM  THE  EARLIEST ... 


PLACE: 


PHILADELPHIA 


DA  TE: 


1848 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

PIBUOGR  APHIC  MTrnn^npp  T^p^rT 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


j-      - 

Goldsmith,'  tOliTerj;i|1728-1774 

The  Grecian  history,  from  the  •arliest  state  , 
to  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great... r^.  and 
oor...by  William  Grimshaw.   Philadelphia.  Origg. 

322  p.       19-1  om. 


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BORN    1835-DIED   1903 

FOR   THIRTY   YEARS   CHIEF  TRANSLATOR 

DEPARTMENT   OF   STATE,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

LOVER   OF   LANGUAQE8   AND    LITERATURE 

HIS    LIBRARY   WAS  GIVEN   AS   A   MEMORIAL 

BY    HIS   SON    WILLIAM  S.  THOMAS,  M.  O. 

TO  COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

A.  D.  1905 


t 


POPULAR  AND  CHEAP  BOOKS. 

Particularly  suitable  for  Family  Liliraries. 

i  PUBLISHEDBY 

GRIGG,  ELLIOT  &  CO. 
No.  14  North  Fourth  Street.  Philadelphia. 

AND  FOR  SALE  BT  BOOKSELLERS  AND  COUNTRY  MERCHANTS  GENE- 
RALLY IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


c<  Educated  mind  is  o  Nation's  wealth,  and  promotes  the  happiness  of  mankind.*' 

At  this  time,  when  the  press  is  teeming  with  so  much  nonsensical  trash, 
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THE  LIFE  OF  GEN.  ZACHARY  TAYLOR, 

BY  ROBERT  T.  CONRAD,  Esq., 

WITH   AN   ORIGINAL  AND   ACCURATE    PORTRAIT, 

And  elegant  illustrations  of  the  Battles  of  Fort  Harrison,   Okee-cho-bee,  Pah 
Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Falma,  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista, 

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derived  from  the  most  authentic  and  accurate  sources. 

In  a  large  and  elegant  volume,  12mo. 

9^  The  Life  of  this  distinguished  General  from  the  eloquent  pen  of  Judge  Conrad, 
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combine  to  render  such  a  work  eminently  popular ;  and  all  who  want  a  complete 
history  of  his  Life  for  their  libraries,  will  do  well  to  say,  in  ordering,  GRIGG, 
ELLIOT  &  CO.'S  Edition. 


GENERAL  TAYLOR  AND  HIS  STAFF,  12ma 

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In  Press,  and  will  shortly  be  published, 

GENERAL  TAYLOR  AND  HIS  STAFF ; 

CONTAINING 

BIOGRAPHIES    OF    GENERALS    TAYLOR,   WORTH,    WOOL,    BUTLER, 

AND  ALL  THE  DISTINGUISHED  OFFICERS  OF  THE 

PRESENT  WAR. 

fCr  These  editions  will  be  the  very  best  published  in  this  country  and  will  b« 
beautifully  illustrated. 


^ 


JOSEPHUS'S  (FLAVinS)  WDR5S. 

Br  THE  LATE  WILLIAM  WHISTON,  A.  M. 
From  the  last  Lmdon  edition,  complete^  and  the  only  readable  edition  puhlialied 

in  this  country. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  every  family  in  our  country  has  a  copy  of  the  Holy  Bible 
--and  as  the  presumption  is,  the  greater  portion  often  consult  its  pajres,  we  take 
the  liberty  of  saying  to  all  those  that  do,  that  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of  Jose- 
pnus  will  betonnd  vory  interestiag  and  instructing. 

A  1  those  who  wish  to  possess  a  beautiful  and°  correct  copy  of  this  invaluable 
werk,  would  do  well  to  purchase  this  edition.  It  is  for  sale  at  all  the  principal 
bookstores  m  the  United  States,  by  country  merchants  generally  in  the  §ouUiera 
and  Western  States.  ^ 


SAY'S  POLITICAL  EGONOIHY. 

A  Treatise  on  Political  Economy,  or  the  Proiluction,  Distribution,  and 
Consumption  ofWealth.  By  Jean  Baptiste  Say.  Fifth  American  edi- 
tion,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  C.  C.  Biddle,  Esq.,  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

It  would  be  beneficial  to  our  country  if  all  those  who  are  aspirin^r  to  office 
were  required  by  their  constituents  to  be  conversant  with  the  pa^es  ofSav  ' 

The  distinguished  biographer  of  the  author,  in  noticing  this"  work,  observes 
Happily  for  science  he  commenced  that  study  which  forms  the  basis  of  his  admi- 
rable treatise  on  Political  Economy,  a  work  which  not  only  improved  under  his 
hand  with  every  successive  edition,  but  has  been  translated  into  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean lanjniages."  ^" 

The  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  speaking  of  Say,  observes,  that «  he  is 
theti'meofSmi'th»^°    ^^^  ^^^*^'®  °'''^'  ^^^^  "^"^^^  *""  Apolitical  Economy,  since 


BENNETT'S  (Rev.  John)  LETTERS  TO  A  YOUNG  LADY 
On  a  variety  of  subjects  calculated  to  improve  the  heart,  to  form  Ihe'man- 
ners,  and  enlighten  the  understanding.    "  That  our  Daughters  may  be 
,  as  polished  corners  of  the  Temple*"  ° 

.  The  publishers  sincerely  hope,  {for  the  happiness  of  mankind,)  that  a  copv  of  this 
valuable  little  work  will  be  found  the  companion  of  every  yountr  lady  as  much  of 
the  happiness  of  every  family  depends  on  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  female  mind. 

<m  . . 

BURDER'S    VILLAGE   SERMONS. 

Or,  101  Plain  and  Short  Discourses  on  the  Principal  Doctrines  of  the 
.     Gospel  J  intended  for  die  use  of  Families,  Sunday  Schools,  or  compa- 


I 


These  sermons,  which  are  characterized  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  the  entire 
absence  ot  controversy,  and  a  true  evangelical  spirit,  have  gone  throu-h  many 
and  large  editiotis   and  been  translated  into  several  of  the  continental  langua^^es. 

They  have  also  been  the  honored  means  not  only  of  converting  many  individ.Kils, 
out  also  of  introducing  the  Gospel  into  districts,  and  even  into  parish  churches 
where  before  it  was  comparatively  unknown." 

"  This  work  fully  deserves  the  immortality  it  has  attained  »» 

This  is  a  fine  library  edition  of  this  invaluable  work,  and  when  we  say  that  it 
should  be  fiound  in  the  possession  of  every  family,  we  only  reiterate  the  sentiments 
and  sincere  wishes  ot  all  who  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  eternal  welfare  of  man- 


NEW     SOWG     BOOK. 

Grigg's  Southern  and  Western  Songster;  being  a  choice  collection  of  the 
most  Fashionable  Songs,  many  of  which  are  original,  in  1  vol.  18mo. 
Great  care  was  taken  in  the  selection,  to  atimit  no  song  that  contained,  in  the 
slightest  degree,  any  indelicate  or  improper  allusions,  and  with  great  propriety  it 
may  claim  the  title  of  "The  Parlor  Song  Book  or  Songster."  The  immortal 
Shakspeare  observes —  ^ 

"  The  man  that  hath  not  music  in  himself. 
Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds. 
Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagems,  and  spoils." 

FAMILY    PRAYERS   AND   HYMNS. 

Adapted  to  Family  Worship,  and  Tables  for  the  regular  Reading  of  the 
Scriptures.  By  Hev.  S.  C.  Winchester,  A.  M.,  late  Pastor  of  the  Sixth 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia^  and  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Natchez,  Miss.     1  vol.  12rao. 

A  DICTIONARY  OF  SELECT  AND  POPULAR  QUOTATIONS, 
Which  are  in  Daily  Use:  taken  from  the  Latin,  French,  Greek,  Spanish 
and  Italian  Languages;   together  with  a  copious  collection  of  Law 
Maxims  and  Law  Terms.    Translated  into  English,  with  illustrations 
historical  and  idiomatic.    Sixth  American  edition,  corrected  with  addi- 
tions.    1  vol.  12mo. 

•In  preparing  this  sixth  edition  for  the  press,  care  has  been  taken  to  give  the 
work.a  tliorough  revision,  to  correct  some  errors  which  had  before  escaped  notice, 
and  to  insert  many  additional  Quotations,  Law  maxims  and  Law  terms.  In  this 
state  it  is  otfered  to  the  public  in  the  stereotype  form.  This  little  work  should 
find  its  way  into  every  family  library. 


Or,  ^^  Youth's  Guide  to  the  Way  to  Wealth,  Honor,  and  Distinction,"  &c.i 
containing;  also  a  complete  Treatise  on  the  art  of  Carvin"- 

*'We  most  cordially  recommend  the  American  Chesterfield  to  general  atten- 
tion; but  to  young  persons  particularly,  at  one  of  the  best  works  of  the  kind  that 
has  ever  been  published  in  this  country.  It  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated  nor 
its  perusal  be  unproductive  of  satisfaction  and  usefulness."  ' 

SENECA'S    MORALS. 

By  way  of  Abstract,  to  which  is  added,  a  Discourse  under  the  title  of  an 
Afier-Thought,  by  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange,  Knt.  A  new  fine  edition,  1 
vol.  18mo.  ' 

A  copy  of  this  valuable  little  work  should  be  found  in  every  family  library. 

THE  DAUGHTER'S  OWN  BOOK. 

Or,  Practical  Hints  from  a  Father  to  his  Daughter.     1  vol.  18mo. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  practical  and  truly  valuable  treatises  on  the  culture  and 
discipline  of  the  female  mind,  which  has  hitherto  been  published  in  this  country 
and  the  publishers  are  very  confident,  from  the  great  demand  for  this  invaluable 
little  work,  that  ere  long  it  will  be  found  in  the  hbrary  of  every  young  lady. 

GOI.DSMITll'S    ANIMATE  DENATURE. 

In  2  vols.  Svo.,  beantifnihj  Illustrated  with  385  Plates. 

"Goldsiflith  can  never  be  made  obsolete  while  delicate  genius,  exquisite  feel- 
ing,  fine  invention,  the  most  harmonious  metre,  and  the  happiest  diction  are  at  all 
valned." 

This  is  a  work  that  should  be  in  the  library  of  every  family,  being  writteli  by 
one  of  the  most  talented  authors  in  the  English  language. 


THE  WORKS  OF  LAURENCE  STERNE. 
In  1  vol.  8v&.,  wiin  a  Life  of  the  Author,  written  by  himself,  and  a  Portrait 

The  beauties  of  this  author  are  so  well  known,  and  his  errors  in  style  and 
expression  so  few  and  far  between,  that  one  reads  with  renewed  delight  his  deli- 
cate turns,  &c. 


SPLENDID     LIBRARY     EDITIONS. 
iLLusTMLaTEn  ST^jyDjtnn  poets, 

ELEGANTLY  PKIIfTED,  AND  UNIFORM   IN  SIZE  AND  STYLE. 

The  following  editions  of  Standard  British  Poets  are  illustrated  with  nu- 
merous steel  engravings,  and  may  be  had  in  all  varieties  of  binding. 

Complete  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  including  all  his  Suppressed  and  Attributed  Poems: 
with  6  beautiful  engravings.  ' 

e^  lY^^  edition  has  been  carefully  compared  with  the  recent  London  edition 
ot  Mr.  Murray,  and  made  complete  by  the  addition  of  more  than  fifty  pages  of 
poems  heretofore  unpublished  in  England.  Among  these  there  are  a  number  that 
nave  never  appeared  in  any  American  edition;  and  the  publishers  believe  they 
are  warranted  in  saying,  that  this  is  the  most  complete  edition  of  Lord  Byron's 
Poetical  Works  ever  published  in  the  United  States. 


COWPER  AND  THOMSON'S  PROSE  AND  POETICAL  WORKS. 
Complete  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  including  two  hundred  and  fifty  Letters,  and 
^r°'r!7  ^°®™^  °^  Cowper,  nefver  before  published  in  this  country:  and 
ot  Thomson  a  new  and  interesting  Memoir,  and  upwards  of  twenty 
new  Poems,  for  the  first  time  printed  from  his  own  Manuscripts,  taken 
from  a  late  edition  of  the  Aldine  Poets  now  publishing  in  London- 
With  7  beauUful  engravings.  ' 

The  distinguished  Professor  Silliman,  speaking  of  this  edition,  observes,  « I  am 
as  much  gratified  by  the  elegance  and  fine  taste  of  your  edition,  as  by  the  noble 
tribute  of  genius  and  moral  excellence  which  these  delightful  authors  have  left  for 
all  future  generations;  and  Cowper,  especially,  is  not  less  conspicuous  as  a  true 
Christian  moralist  and  teacher,  than  as  a  poet  of  great  power  and  exquisite  U8te.»» 

THE  POETICAL  WORKS  OF  MRS.  REMANS. 

Complete  in  1  vol  8vo.;  with  7  heautifid  engravings. 

J^This  is  a  new  and  complete  edition,  with  a  splendid  engraved  likeness  of 
Mrs.  Hemans  on  steel,  and  contains  all  the  poems  in  the  last  London  and  Ameri- 
can editions.    With  a  Critical  Preface  by  Mr.  Thatcher,  of  Boston. 

"As  no  work  in  the  English  language  can  be  commended  with  more  confidence 
It  will  argue  bad  taste  m  a  female  in  this  country  to  be  without  a  complete  edition 
ot  the  writings  of  one  who  was  an  honor  to  her  sex  and  to  humanity,  and  whose 
productions,  from  first  to  last,  contain  no  syllable  calculated  to  call  a  blush  to  the 
cheek  of  modesty  and  virtue.  There  is,  moreover,  in  Mrs.  Hemans'  poetrv  a 
moral  purity,  and  a  religious  feeling,  which  commend  it,  in  an  especial  manner 
to  the  discriminating  reader.  No  parent  or  guardian  will  be  under  the  necessity 
of  imposing  restrictions  with  regard  to  the  free  perusal  of  every  production  ema- 
Dating  from  this  gifted  woman.  There  breathes  throughout  the  whole  a  most 
eminent  exemption  from  impropriety  of  thought  or  diction;  and  there  is  at  times 
a  pensiveness  of  tone,  a  winning  sadness  in  her  mere  serious  compositions,  which 
tells  of  a  soul  which  has  been  lifted  from  the  contemplaUoa  of  terrestrial  things. 
to  divine  communings  with  beings  of  a  purer  world.»>  ^^ 


i 


THE  POETICAL  WORKS  OF  ROGERS,  CAMPBELL,  MONT- 

GOxMERY,  LAMB,  AND  KIRK  WHITE. 

Complete  in  1  vol.  «vo.,  with  6  beautiful  engravings. 

MILTON,  YOUNG,  GRAY,  BEATTIE,  AND  COLLINS^  POETICAL 

WORKS. 
Complele  in  1  vol.  8vo.;  with  6  beautiful  engravings. 

HEBER,  POLLOK,  AND  CRABBERS  POETICAL  WORKS. 
Complete  in  1  vol.  8vo.;  with  6  beautiful  engravings. 

A  writer  in  tho  Boston  Traveler  holds  the  following  language  with  reference  to 

Biese  valuable  editions: — 

Mr.  Edttor--.I  wish,  without  any  idea  of  puffing,  to  say  a  word  or  two  upon  the 

*«  Library  of  English  Poets"  that  is  now  published  at  Philadelphia,  by  Grigff  & 

Elliot;  It  IS  certainly,  taking  into  consideration  the  elegant  manner  in  which  U  is 

printed,  and  the  reasonable  price  at  which  it  is  afforded  to  purchasers,  the  best 

edition  of  the  modern  British  Poets  that  has  ever  been  published  in  this  country. 

Each  volume  is  an  octavo  of  about  600  pages,  double  columns,  stereotyped,  and 

accompanied  with  fine  engravings,  and  biographical  sketches,  and  most  of  them 

are  reprinted  from  Galiagnani's  French  edition.    As  to  its  value  we  need  only 

mention  that  It  contains  the  entire  works  of  Montgomery,  Gray,  Bcattie,  Collins. 

fc/  ^""V^rlJ^T'll'  Milton    Young,  Rogers,  Campbell,  Lamb,  Hemans, 

Hcber,  Kirk  White,  Crabbe,  the  Miscellaneous  Works  of  Goldsmith,  and  othe^ 

martyrs  of  the  lyre.    The  publishers  are  doing  a  great  service  by  their  publication. 

and  their  volumes  are  almost  in  as  great  demand  as  the  fashionable  novels  of  the 

day,  and  they  deserve  to  be  so,  for  they  are  certainly  printed  in  a  style  superior 

to  that  in  which  we  have  before  had  the  works  of  the  English  Poets  '> 

No  library  can  be  considered  complete  without  a  cop^y  of  the  above  beautiful 
and  cheap  editions  of  the  English  Poets,  and  persons  ordering  all  or  any  of  them 
will  please  say  Gngg,  Elliot  &  Co.'s  illustrated  ediUons. 

^    HIND'S  POPULAR  SITSTEM  OF  FARRIERY. 

Taught  on  a  new  and  easy  plan,  being  a  Treatise  on  aU  the  Diseases  and 
Accidents  to  which  the  Horse  is  liable.  With  considerable  additions 
and  improvements;  adapted  particularly  to  this  country,  by  Thomas  M. 
femith,  Velennar>'  Surgeon,  and  Member  of  the  London  Veterinary 
Medical  Society.    In  1  vol.  12mo.  ^ 

MASON'S  POPULAR  SYSTEM  OF  FARRIEltY. 

Comprising  a  General  Description  of  the  noble  and  useful  animal,  the 
Horse,  together  with  the  quickest  and  simplest  mode  of  faltenin'r- 
necessary  treatment  while  undergoing  excessive  fati-ne,  or  on  a  iour- 
ney;  the  construction  and  management  of  Stables;  different  marks  for 
ascertaining  the  Age  of  a  Horse:  also,  a  concise  Account  of  the  Dis- 
eases  to  which  the  Horse  is  subject;  with  such  remedies  as  lon^  expe- 
rience has  proved  to  be  effectual.    By  Richard  Mason,  M.  D.,  formerly 
J^urrey  Co.,  Va     Ninth  edition,  with  additions.    To  which  is  added 
ariize  hssoy  on  Males,  and  An  Appendix  containing  Observations  and 
itecipes  for  the  cure  of  most  of  the  common  distempers  incident  to 
Horses,  Oxen,  Cows,  Calves,  Sheep,  Lambs,  Swine,  Dogs,  &c.  &c. 
Selected  from  different  authors.    Also,  an  Addenda,  cbntaiSing  AnnaU 
oj  the  Turf,  Am^man  Stud  Book,  Rules  for  Training,  Racing,  &c. 
^J^^  PuWishers  have  received  numerous  flattering  notices  of  the  great  practical 
Tnl VL    ^'^  T'^^'    ^^^  distinguished  editor  of  the  American  Farmer,  speak- 

hPrpLI't^'-     '^'■''^'~"^^/^""'^*  *°°  "'§^^^y  recommend  these  books,  and 
thcrelore  advise  every  owner  of  a  horse  to  obtain  thera." 


THE  STOCK  RAISER'S  MANUAL. 

A  Guide  to  the  Raising  and  Improvment  of  Cattle,  being  a  Treatise  on  theii 
Breeds,  Management,  and  Diseases.  By  W.  Youatt,  author  of  a  "  Trea- 
tise on  the  Horse,"  with  numerous  illustrations.  Complete  in  1  vol.  8va 
This  work  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  importance  to  farmers  and  cattle  raisera 

throughout  the  United  States,  and  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  farmer^  u 

it  is  the  most  complete  work  on  this  subject  ever  published. 


M'MAHON'S  AMERICAN  GAIUEIilER. 

Ninth  edition,  much  improved.    In  1  vol.  8vo. 

This  is  an  invaluable  work  to  all  who  wish  to  obtain  any  information  on  the  8al>> 
ject  of  Gardening  in  all  its  various  branches. 


GRIGG,    ELLIOT    &    CO^S 

RURAL  REGISTER  AND  ALMANAC     ' 

For  184§:  to  be  continued  Annually. 

For  fanners  and  gardeners  it  is  invaluable,  giving  full  directions  for  all  their 
work  for  every  month  in  the  year,  and  for  all  the  States  in  the  Union.  There  is 
no  work  ever  published  that  contains  so  much  useful  and  valuable  information  in 
80  cheap  and  convenient  a  form  ;  and  we  do  say  that  no  farmer  or  gardener,  who 
IS  worth  a  "bit,"  should  be  without  one.  There  is  no  pursuit  in  which  more  real 
rational  enjoyment  and  comfort  will  follow  to  an  industrious  man  than  Horticul- 
tural employments. 


BOOK  OF  POLITENESS. 

The  Gentleman  and  Lady^s  Book  of  Politeness  and  Propriety  of  Deport- 
ment. Dedicated  to  the  Youth  of  both  sexes.  By  Madame  Celnart. 
Translated  from  the  Sixth  Paris  edition,  enlarged  and  improved.  Fifth 
American  edition. 


THE   BEAUTIES  OF  HISTORY. 

Or,  Examples  of  the  Opposite  Effects  of  Virtue  and  Vice,  for  the  use  of 
Families.    1  vol.  12mo.,  with  plates. 

"After  a  careful  examination  of  this  book,  we  can  conscientiously  recommend 
It  to  parents  and  teachers  as  a  most  meritorious  performance.  There  are  here 
collected,  withm  a  narrow  compass,  the  most  striking  examples  of  individual  virtue 
and  vice  which  are  spread  forth  on  the  pages  of  history,  or  are  recorded  in  per- 
sonal biography.  The  noblest  precepts  are  recommended  for  the  guidance  o{ 
youth ;  and  in  the  most  impressive  manner  is  he  taught  to  conquer  the  degradinir 
impulses  which  lower  the  standard  of  the  human  character.  We  have  not  lately 
Su'  T  u^  volume  which,  in  design  and  execution,  seemed  so  acceptable  as  this. 
The  book,  moreover,  is  handsomely  got  up,  and  illustrated  with  wood  engrar- 
ings,"  ® 


THE  CLERBYISIAN'S  ASSISTANT. 

Or,  Guide  in  Reading  the  Liturgy;  containing  Directions  for  Reading  Cor- 
rectly  with  the  Pronunciation.  By  Rev.  W.  H.  Odenheimer,  of  Phila- 
delphia.   1  vol.  12mo.,  cloth. 


LIFE  OF  PAUL  JONES. 

In  one  vol.  12mo.,  with  100  Illustrations. 

"Life  of  Rear  Admiral  John  Paul  Jones,»»  &c.  &c.,  by  James  Hamilton.  The 
work  is  compiled  from  his  original  journals  and  correspondence;  and  includes  an 
account  of  his  services  in  the  American  Revolution,  and  in  the  war  between  the 
Russians  and  Turks  in  the  Black  Sea.  There  is  scarcely  any  Naval  Hero  of  any 
age  who  combined  in  his  character  so  much  of  the  adventurous,  skilful  and  daring, 
as  Paul  Jones.  The  incidents  of  his  life  are  almost  as  startling  and  absorbing  as 
those  of  romance.  His  achievements  during  the  American  Revolution—the  fight 
between  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  Serapis,  the  most  desperate  naval  action  on 
record,  and  the  alarm  into  which,  with  so  small  a  force,  he  threw  the  coasts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  are  matters  comparatively  well  known  to  Americans:  but 
the  incidents  of  his  subsequent  career  have  been  veiled  in  obscurity,  which  is  dis- 
sipated by  this  Biography.  A  book  like  this,  narrating  the  actions  of  such  a  man, 
ought  to  meet  with  an  extensive  sale,  and  become  as  popular  as  Robinson  Crmot 
m  fiction,  or  Weems*  Life  of  Marion  and  Washington,  and  similar  books  in  fact. 
It  contains  400  pages— has  a  handsome  portrait  and  medallion  likeness  of  Jones, 
and  is  illustrated  with  numerous  original  wood  engravings  of  naval  scenes  and 
distinguished  men  with  whom  he  was  familiar. 

L.  G.  Curtis,  Esq.,  editor  of  The  Commercial,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  speaking  of  thii 
work,  &c.,  observes:- «  Life  of  Rear  Admiral  Paul  Jones,  illustrated  with  nume- 
rous engravings  from  original  drawings."  This  book  we  prize  above  any  in  our 
possession.  John  Paul  Jones  was  truly  an  extraordinary  man.  He  had  the  honor 
to  hoist  with  his  own  hands  the  flag  of  freedom,  the  first  time  it  was  displayed  in 
the  Delaware,  and  in  after  life  declared  that  he  attended  it  with  veneration  ever 
after.  To  Paul  Jones  the  honor  of  raising  up  an  American  navy  belongs.  He  waa 
the  first  commander  in  the  world  who  made  the  proud  flag  of  England  "come 
down."  His  life,  as  printed  by  Messrs.  Grigg,  Elliot  &  Co.,  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  intelligent  American. 


WALKER'S  SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  DICTIONARY. 

NEW     EDITION. 

FROM   NEW  STEREOTYPE  PLATES,  GREATLY  IMPROVED,  AND  PRINTED 

ON    WHITE   PAPER. 

A  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary  and  Expositor  of  the  English  language 
in  which  the  meaning  of  every  word  is  explained,  and  the  sound  o^ 
every  syllable  distinctly  shown.  To  which  are  prefixed  an  Abstract  of 
English  Pronunciation,  and  Directions  to  Foreigner^  for  Acquiring  a 
Knowledge  of  the  Use  of  this  Dictionary.  By  John  Walker,  author  of 
"  Elements  of  Elocution,^'  "  Rhyming  Dictionary,"  &c.  &c.  Abridged 
for  the  use  of  Schools,  by  an  American  Citizen.      "^  * 

P.  S.  This  is  a  new  edition,  on  fine  paper,  and  improved  in  printing  and  bind- 
ing. Parents  and  Teachers  will  please  examine  and  order  Grigg,  Elliot  &  Co  »a 
Improved  Edition. 

An  eminent  writer,  and  a  good  judge  of  the  value  of  Dictionaries,  observes  as 
follows: — 

We  have  received  from  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Grigg,  Elliot  &  Co.,  No.  14 
North  Fourth  Street,  a  copy  of  their  new  and  handsome  edition  of  Walker's  Criti- 
cal Pronouncing  Dictionary  for  Schools.  The  present  edition  is  decidedly  the 
best  and  most  convenient  we  have  ever  seen,  both  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the 
type  on  which  it  is  printed,  and  the  style  and  form  in  which  it  is  issued.  It  has  been 
«<  got  up"  in  a  handsome  and  substantial  manner,  expressly  for  schools— has  been 
greatly  improved  and  made  better  in  every  respect  for  teachers  and  scholars.  All 
teachers  who  have  any  regard  for  their  eyes  and  the  eyes  of  their  scholars,  would 
find  It  to  their  advantage  to  use  this  edition,  printed  as  it  is  from  new  stereotype 
plates  and  on  clean  white  paper.  The  edition  is  for  sale  by  booksellers  and  coui^ 
try  merchants  generally  throughout  the  United  States, 
7 


BOLLES'  FHONOGRAFHIG  PRONOUNCING  DICTIONARY. 

IN   ONE   VOL.   ROYAL   8V0 

This  valuable  work  has  met  with  the  most  favorable  reception  from  the  Ameri- 
can public.  It  contains  more  words  than  the  8vo.  edition  of  Webster,  and  has  the 
pronunciation  attached  according  to  the  best  authorities,  which  is  a  very  import- 
ant addition,  and  renders  the  work  much  more  desirable  for  general  use  and 
reference  than  of  any  of  the  large  dictionaries  now  in  use.  No  man  of  business 
or  family  should  be  without  this  valuable  Dictionary. 

The  same  work  abridfred,  in  1  vol.  12mo.,  we  have  just  published  also,  which 
will  be  found  an  invaluable  class  book  for  academies,  seminaries,  and  higher  order 
of  schools,  as  well  as  an  important  companion  to  the  education  of  every  young 
person. 

BIGLAND'S  NATUKAL  HISTORY 

Of  Animals,  Birds,  Fishes,  Reptiles  and  Insects,  illustrated  with  nume- 
rous and  beautiful  engravings.  By  John  Bigland,  author  of  a  "View 
of  the  World,"  "  Letters  on  Universal  History,"  &c.  Complete  in  1 
vol.  12mo. 

^^  This  work  is  particularly  adapted  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Families, 
forming  the  most  elegantly  written  and  complete  work  on  the  subject  of  Natural 
History  ever  published,  and  is  worthy  of  the  special  attention  of  the  teachers  of 
all  our  schools  and  academies. 


1 


BIGLAND'S  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  ANIMALS. 
Illustrated  with  12  beautifully  colored  engravings. 

BIGLAND'S  HISTORY  OF  BIRDS. 
Illustrated  with  12  beautifully  colored  engravings. 


By  Shoberl,  with  12  colored  plates. 

These  works  are  got  up  in  a  very  superior  style,  and  well  deserve  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  shelves  of  every  family  library,  as  they  are  very  interesting,  and  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  the  juvenile  class  of  readers. 


GRIffiSHAW'S  POPULAR  HISTORIES. 

FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  FAMILY  LIBRARIES. 


GRIMSHAW'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Recently  brought  up  by  the  author  to  the  present  time. 
Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Families. 

GRIMSHAW'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

Recently  brought  up  by  the  author  to  the  present  time. 
Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Families. 

GRIMSHAW'S  IJMPROVED  EDITION  OF  GOLDSMITH'S  HISTORY 

OF  GREECE, 

With  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Proper  Names  contained  in  the  work,  aod  the 
Prosodijil  Accents,  in  conformity  with  the  Pronunciation  of  Lempriere. 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Families. 
8 


GRIMSHAW'S  IMPROVED  EDITION  OF  GOLDSMITH'S  HISTORY 

OF  ROME. 

Revised  and  Corrected ;  and  a  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names  appended, 
with  Prosodial  Marks  to  assist  in  their  Pronunciation. 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Families. 

GRIMSHAW'S  HISTORY  OF  FRANCE,  with  Key  and  Questions. 
GRIMSHAW'S  HISTORY  AND  LIFE  OF  NAPOLEON. 

The  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  speaking  of  these  Histories,  ob- 
serves, that — 

Among  the  Elementary  Books  of  American  History,  we  do  not  remember  to 
have  seen  any  one  more  deserving  approbation  than  Mr.  6rimsha«v's  History  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  a  small  volume,  and  a  great  deal  of  matter  is  brought 
into  a  narrow  space;  but  the  author  has  succeeded  so  well  in  the  construction  of 
his  periods,  and  the  arrangement  of  his  materials,  that  perspicuity  is  rarely  sacri- 
ficed to  brevity. 

The  chain  of  narrative  is  skilfully  preserved ;  and  the  author's  reflections  are 
frequently  such  as  to  make  the  facts  more  impressive,  and  lead  the  youthful  mind 
to  observe  causes  and  consequences  which  might  otherwise  have  been  overlooked. 
As  a  school  book  it  may  justly  be  recommended. 

What  has  been  said  of  this  volume  will  apply  generally  to  his  other  historical 
works.  They  are  each  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  one  just  noticed,  and  de- 
signed for  the  same  object,  that  is,  the  use  of  classes  in  schools. 

The  History  of  England  is  an  original  composition;  but  the  Grecian  and  Roman 
Histories  are  Goldsmith's,  improved  by  Grimshaw,  in  which  he  has  corrected  the 
typographical  errors  with  which  the  later  editions  of  Goldsmith's  Abridgements 
so  much  abound ;  and  removed  any  grossness  in  language,  which,  in  some  few 
instances,  render  these  valuable  compends  less  useful  in  the  schools  to  which 
youth  of  both  sexes  resort.  He  has  also  added  a  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names, 
accentuated,  in  order  to  show  their  right  pronunciation,  which  is  a  valuable  ap- 
pendage to  the  History. 

All  these  books  are  accompanied  with  very  full  and  well-digested  Tables  of 
Questions,  for  the  benefit  of  Pupils,  and  also  with  Keys  to  the  same,  for  the  con- 
venience of  Teachers.  * 

GRIMSHAW'S  LADIES'  LEXICON, 

And  Parlor  Companion;  containing  nearly  every  word  in  the  Englisl. 
language,  and  exhibiting  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  thef  participles  oi 
verbs;  being  also  particularly  adapted  to  the  use  of  Acaderaiefe  and 
Schools.    By  William  Grimshaw,  Esq. 

In  the  Nashville  Republican,  we  observe  the  following  notice  of  this  very  useful 
book : — 

In  recommending  the  "  Ladies'  Lexicon,"  therefore,  to  all  our  readers,  male 
and  female,  who  have  ever  experienced  the  difficulties  which  it  is  so  admirably 
calculated  to  remedy,  we  but  do  an  ordinary  act  of  justice  to  the  author  and  pub- 
lisher. We  consider  the  *<  Ladies'  Lexicon,"  and  recommend  it  to  our  readers  as 
a  work  that  possesses  superior  claims  on  their  attention  and  patronage. 

THE  GENTLEMEN'S  LEXICON. 

Or,  Pocket  Dictionary:  containing  nearly  every  word  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  exhibiting  the  plurads  of  nouns  and  the  participles  of  verbs; 
being  also  particularly  adapted  to  the  use  of  Academies  and  Schools. 
By  William  Grimshaw. 

The  public  are  again  indebted  to  the  talents  of  Mr.  Grimshaw,  for  the  very  use- 
ful books  which  he  has  called  "  The  Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Lexicons."  The 
peculiarity  and  advantages  of  these  works  may  be  collected  from  th«  foUcwing 
portion  of  the  preface  :-— 

9 


9 


They  differ  from  all  preceding  works  of  the  kind  in  thie,  that  they  eihibit  the 
plnrals  of  all  nouns  which  are  not  formed  by  the  mere  addition  of  the  letters, 
anil  ;i!so  the  prirticiples  of  every  verb  now  generally  used,  and  unless  accompa- 
i»if>(i  by  a  p;irticul;ir  caution.  No  word  has  been  admitted  which  is  not  now  of 
p(»!ite  or  populur  use;  and  no  word  has  been  excluded  which  is  required  either  in 
epibiolatory  composition  or  conversation.  , 

In  giving  the  above  extracts  wc  take  occasion  to  say,  that  teachers  will  find  the 
"Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Lexicons"  works  admirably  adapted  to  take  the  place, 
with  advantage  to  their  pupils,  of  the  different  works  recently  put  into  their  hands 
under  the  name  of  Expositors,  &c. 

^fCr  The  above  work  has  been  introduced  as  a  Classbook  into  many  of  our 
academies  and  schools,  with  great  approbation. 


Ruschenberger's  First  Books  of  Natural  History. 

FOR    SCHOOLS,    ACADEMIES,    COLLEGES,    AND    FAMILIES. 


DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  ANATOMY  AND 

PHYSIOLOGY. 
For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Families;  with  45  illustrations.     1  vol.  12mo. 

This  is  a  most  valuable  work,  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger:  and  most  admirably  are 
the  plates,  representing  all  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  done.     It  is  cheap 
and  every  parent  should  place  one  in  the  hands  of  his  children. — N,  Y.  Herald, 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  MAMMALOGY. 

The  Natural  History  of  Quadrupeds;  for  beginners;  75  illustrations.     1 
vol.  12nio. 

This  number  treats  of  all  animals  that  in  infancy  feed  on  the  milk  of  their 
mothers,  from  the  human  being  down  to  the  musquito-catching  bat.  Like  the 
"  First  Book,"  it  is  divided  into  Questions  and  Answers,  and  a  Glossary;  and  is 
illustrated  by  six  plates.  It  is  very  cheap ;  and  contains  an  abundance  of  useful 
information.  There  are  thousands  of  persons  in  this  country,  and  millions  in 
Europe,  who  do  not  know  that  whales  give  milk. — New  York  Era. 

We  do  not  know  a  more  useful  set  than  this  promises  to  be — and  IS. — New  York 
Aurora. 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  ORNITHOLOGY. 
The  Natural  History  of  Birds;  for  beginners;  81  illustrations.    1  vol.  12mo. 

New  York,  Feb.  9,  1846. 

Sir — I  have  received  your  note  of  the  3d  instant,  together  with  the  "Elements 
of  Ornithology,"  prepared  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  by  W.  S.  W. 
Ruschenberger,  M.  D.,  &c.,  and  have  read  the  work,  in  compliance  with  the  re- 
quest of  the  American  Institute,  that  I  should  examine  and  report  upon  it. 

I  have  great  pleasure  in  highly  recommending  it.  To  say  the  truth,  although  I 
am  somewhat  blanched  by  the  hand  of  time,  and  have  many  years  been  a  student 
of  Ornithology,  I  consider  the  present  the  very  best  introduction  to  that  science 
that  I  have  ever  seen  ;  and  I  might  add  as  full  praise  to  the  other  works  of  the 
series  of  Ruschenberger's  text- books  of  Natural  History,  as  far  as  I  am  acquainted 
with  the  subjects  they  relate  to. 

Dr.  Ruschenberger  has,  in  giving  this  series  to  the  public,  rendered  a  benefit  to 
all  seekers  after  science,  as  both  old  and  young  may  profit  by  the  well-arranged 
and  valuable  information  these  volumes  contain.        Your  obedient  servant. 

To  H.  Meigs,  Esq.,  JOHN  J.  AUDUBON. 

Recording  Secretary  of  the  American  Institute,  New  York  City. 

We  wish  we  could  induce  our  teachers  generally  to  examine  this,  as  well  as  the 
earlier  works  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger;  they  are  admirably  arranged,  and  just  the 
very  books  needed  for  schools.  The  work  before  us,  on  the  Natural  History  of 
Birds,  is  an  admirable  one  j  auid  no  teacher  should  neglect  to  introduce  the  series. 

Cincinnati  Gazette, 

10 


We  have  much  pleasure  in  commending  this  series  of  work^—the  third  of 
which,  now  before  us,  is  on  Ornithology.  It  will  be  found  useful  m  the  school- 
room, or  the  private  study.— C7.  S.  Gazette.  ' 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S   ELEMENTS   OF   HERPiMOLOGY    AND 

ICHTHYOLOGY. 

The  Natural  History  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes;  for  beginners;  66  illustia- 
tions.     1  vol.  12mo.  ;  o  ; 

Ruschenberger's  Series  of  Books  on  Natural  History  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able and  useful  works  for  the  use  of  Schools,  that  have  ever  been  published.  ^  A 
knowledge  of  Natural  History  is  not  only  valuable,  but  deeply  interesting  :  and  no 
one's  education  can  with  such  facilities  as  these  works  aflbrd,  be  considered  com- 
plete without  iL^National  Intelligencer.  i^uii^iuereu  com 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  CONCHOLOGY. 

The  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca;  for  beginners;  119  illustra- 
tions.    1  vol.  12mo. 

t 

SJI-^  ^""""^  ""^  hand-books  equal  to  these ;  and  we  think  Dr.  R.  has  conferred 

^    whh  Ir/h"  "5°"    eachers  and  learners  by  producing  them  in  an  English  dress, 

wni   iV    if-^'f '"'K'  «^  ^"-engraved  illustrations.     The  whole  set  of  this 

rc^oonibrary.' '     °'  ^' ""         ^"'''  ""'^^  P'"*^^  ^"  invaluable  acquisition  to  the 

,      DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 
TheNaturalHistory  of  Insects;  for  beginners ;  91  illustrations.  1  vol.  12mo. 

aZte^'JTnr^'.r^^^  f'^^*^'^'  ^"^  ^':°"*  V^^  exceeding  chenpness  and  admirable 
P^Sq  K  ,  i^"""?  elementary  works,  they  are  well  fitted  for  general  use  in 
Public  Schools,  Academies,  and  in  every  private  library .-iV.,.,  York  American. 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 
The^ Natural  History  of  Plants;   for  beginners;  194  illustrations.     1  vol. 

fh  J^n^°  """*  ?  u '^^^^  ^?  '^y'  *^^^  ^^'^  •'  ^^^  '^^^t  work  of  the  kind  and  dimensions 
Recold^.^  ^  ^  '^^'P^'  ^'  ^^  ^'^  '"'■^  '^'^y  ^'''  P"^«  it  highly.-Bo?a«ic 

in  Natu^THi«?olV^"^'  ^'  eminently  useful,  supplying  adequately  the  instruction 
in  Natural  History  necessary  to  a  proper  school  education.-ATorM  American. 

DR.  RUSCHENBERGER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOLOGY. 

'^witfe'VpintTl  w  ^',  ^'''^'?  ^-^^"^"^"^  ^°^  beginners;  illustrated 
with  300  beautiful  Wood-cuts,  designed  to  assist  the  learner  in  the 
course  of  his  studies.     1  vol.  12mo 

Ja  ^^  %'T^'^^  ^  competent  judge  in  the  opinion,  that  it  is  the  most  comnlete 
coun^rv      tL    T'"rTr^^?'"^""  '^'  ^"^J^*^^  "^'^^  ^^  »^«««  published  7this 

to  exS;  Jm^ZI  n  ^^''^^^y''  ?r  '"'•^^'^''^S  ^  ^--^^^  ^^^^'  ^"d  will  continue 
to  excite  still  more  attention  in  the  United  States,  as  our  vast  mineral  resources 
are  becoming  more  fully  developed  ;  and  this  work  exactly  su  t  the  ^4nts  onhe 
public,  in  training  up  the  young  for  future  study  in  this  branch  of  knowledge  '» 

yr.L^Tr^^^^  ^??^'^  °f  "^^^^^  '^"'  ^'^'"™^  a  part  has  been  highly  and  iustW  corn- 
Sell 'Vkn  ^f  f^  J"^S-«' ««  furnishing 'rare  facilities  fo=r  L  ae^u  s  fio„  of 
amined   th.  J^^^'^^S^' t»'  ^oo  much  neglected  in  our  schools.     We  have  ex- 
nr^i^.K    .    volumes  with  much  care,  and  we  find  them  well  deserving  all  the 
praise  bestowed  on  them.— Codec's  Lady^s  Book,  u«=,eiving        me 

11 


^"S^l're"„l^io;:t^^^^^^^^  Set^  Ja  school  books  ia  use. 

on  the  same  subject.  y^^  Co//e^«,  Dw.  19,  1845. 

I  think  this  an  excellent  work-condensed  luci^^^^^^^^^^^  ThHirustttU 

gafe  guide  for  the  pupil,  and  a  useful  review  for  the  teacher,  ^^n^^^^^^^^^ 
are  numerous  and  exact. 

Extract  of  a  Report  to  the  American  Insttttae, 

ward  for  a  very  small  expense  of  time  and  money.  JAMtb  J .  m&fi^. 

GRIGG    &    ELLIOT'S    NEW    SERIES    OP 

COMMON    SCHOOL    READERS, 

Numbers  First,  Second,  Third  and  Fourth. 

TK.<.»  hnnka  are  oarticularlv  adapted  for  an  introduction  into  the  Schools  gene- 
These  books  are  parHouiariy        P  ^^^  f.^^^  ^  ^        i„,ere3t  m  promotmg 

Ihe  VeVlre  'rtheir  pu^ls,  ^ill,  no  doubt,  after  a  careful  exammation,  g.ve  them 

%l^'^"::i  TercherstiU  XtreTiV^Uowing  notice  of  this  Invaluable 

apriea  of  Elementary  School  Bool'S. 

Te  called  auenti  Jto  the  above-named  paries  o/^^Common  S^^^^^^^^^ 

since,  when  publishing  ^"  ^^dverusement  for  ihj  «ale  Jf  them  Dy  so  ^^^^^^^       ^„^ 

Since  that  time  we  have  had  opportunity  to  ^^f^^^^^^^f^eiors  of  those  interesting  pub- 

feel  it  due  to  the  community  in  ^hich  we  live,  and  J^^  P[X'g^^°;,ibute  a  valuable  addftion 

ucations,  to  norice  them  ™ore  particular  y.    They  certai^^^^  ^^  .^^^.^^^^ 

to  our  stock  of  elementary  hterature,  in  th^^^^^ 

acquaintance  ^"J^^e  necessii^.  that  d^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^  attaimnent  of  the 

*"  i'he  First  Class  reader  is  exactly  «"^<^^^*^^b°f^f^|h^^^^  embodying  plea- 

and  hearts  of  little  boys  and  girls.    Composed  ot  snort  ana  e  J         ^    g^  ^^  j^  g^ch 
Sam  and  profitable  instruction,  it  is  J^^^i^he  thmg  for  mf^^^^^  comprehend.    In 

words  as  they  can  readily  Pronounce  and  such  idea^as  they  can  ey         J^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 
the  Second  and  Third  Class  Readers  the  style  increases  in  the  imr^^^^^^  ^^^  studious 

elevation  of  sentiment  in  be auti Ail  consistency  vaththe^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  Class 

pupils,  in  the  more  \^,^^;;jf^  «  Xm  of  K7inter^^^^^  instrucuve  facts   argu- 

keader  is  an  invaluable  co"ipendiura  of  d^^^^^ 

ments  and  inferences,  drawntjom  that  unfa  Im^  of 'History,"  consisung  of 

and  manners  of  by-gone  times.    It  is  a  reprint  oi  in  ^  ^^.^^  ^^^^^^^  and  virtues, 

anecdotes  of  men  ^nd  women  made  ill ustri^^^^^^  of  their  characters  and  crimes.  It  is,  there- 
or  rendered  eterna  ly  intamous  by  the  J^/^^^^^^JJ^^g  J,"  ^^  term  of  study,  preparatory  to 
fore,  a  fit  companion  for  those  who  ^re  ^^^f^^J"^^^^^^  S  by  the  bright  example  of 
T^'^'V'i:  ^a?k\"wi'dl's'n«7orp^^^^^  b/the  wretchedness  and 

?Jn'o7?hrvTd^us,Tom^^^^^^^^^^  .  .       ,,,,^,^  f„r  tke 

'  After  the  table  of  contents  of  the  ^^-nd  R^d^^^^^^  Si 

fnonTtle  o?,Tu;  f^ a£."F  Af  :/ut^of  ^^^^^^  refer  to  the  books 

^trSic,  private  and^s^^^^^^^^^ 

ire^.To^U«ii  ^"^^SsTT^^^^^^^  oj 


THE 


GRECIAN  mSTORY, 


FROM 


THE  EARLIEST  STATE 


TO    THE 


DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


0  \  ^  Y  v"<^ 


BY  DR.  GOLDSMITH. 


TWO  VOLS.  IN  ONE 


«BVISED  AND  CORRECTED.  AND  A  VOCABULARY  OF  PROPER  NAMI 
APPENDED;  WITH  PE030DIAL  MARKS.  TO  ASSIST  IN  THEIR 

PRONUNCIATION. 


BY  WILLIAM   GRIMSHAW. 


■»«> 


PHILADELPHIA : 

GRIGG,    ELLIOT  &   CO. 

NO.  14  NORTH  FOURTH  STREET. 

1848. 


I 


I 


o 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


/^-t 


Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania,  to  wit: 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  nineteenth  day  of  June, 

rij    S.)     in  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States 

of  America,  A.  D.  1826,  John  Grigg,  of  the  said  District, 

tatxh  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he 

claims  as  Proorietor,  in  the  words  following,  to  wit; 

"  The  Grecian  History,  from  the  earliest  state  to  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  By  Dr.  Goldsmith.  Two  volumes  in  one.  Reviseo 
and  corrected,  and  a  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names  appended;  with 
Prosodial  Marks,  to  assist  in  their  Pronunciation;  by  William 
Grimshaw." 

In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  enti- 
tled, "An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the 
copies  of  mans,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of 
such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned ;"  And  also  to  the  Act, 
entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  Act,  entitled,  *  An  Act  for  the 
encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and 
books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times 
tlierem  mentioned,'  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  de- 
•igning,  engraving,  and  etching  lustorical  and  other  prints." 

D.  CALDWELL, 

CUrk  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania 


Printed  by  T   K.  t  P.  G.  CoUiiw. 


I  . 


When,  many  years  ago,  I  offered  to  tfie  Public,  a 
revised  edition   of  Goldsmith's  Rome,    I  judged   it 
necessary  to  accompany  it  with  my  reasons  for  so  bold 
an  attempt,  and  an  exposition  of  the  principal  faults  of 
the  original.     To  that  exposition,  as  well  as  to  this 
revised  edition  of  the  History  of  Greece,  by  the  same 
author,  I  refer  the  curious  in  literature  ;  that  (hey  may 
decide,  whether  or   not  I   have  been  warranted,   in 
attempting  an  improvement,  or  have  been  inexcusably 
presumptuous.     Bold,  indeed,  may  seem  the  under- 
taking, to  improve  the  pages  of  an  author,  of  whom 
the  great  moralist  and  lexicographer  has  said,   "  Nofi 
tetigit,  quod  non  arnavif  This  compliment,  how- 
ever,  that  fastidious  critic  certainly  did  not  apply  to 
Dr.  Goldsmith,  os  an  Historian*    In  history,  scarcely 
any  other  writer  has  so  completely  failed.     Nothing 
but  his  high  merit,in  other  walks  of  literature,  could 
have  prolonged  the  existence  of  his  works,  in  this 
branch  of  composition,  for  so  great  a  length  of  time. 
He  wrote  with  too  great  rapidity,  for  an  historian , 
and,   consequently,    without    a   due    regard    to    the 


398160 


ADVERTISEMENT 

wrangement  and  perspicuity  of  his  matter,  or  the 
purity  and  correctness  of  his  style.  Obscurity  and 
ambiguity— -inaccuracy  and  impurity— confusion  and 
indelicacy—are  every  where  visible,  in  his  historical 
productions;  upon  which,  alone,  had  he  relied  for 
reputation,  his  name  would,  now,  after  the  lapse  ot 
half  a  century,  be  unknown. 

iiarrUlmrg^  June  1,  1826. 


%♦  Accompanying  this  edition,  there  w  c 
MiaU  Book  of  Historical  Questions,  for  the  use 
of  schools,  also,  for  the  convenience  of  Teachers, 
a  Key,  containing  the  Answers. 


TtOS 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Of  the  earliest  state  of  Greece. 

The  first  notices  we  have,  of  every  country,  are  fabulous  And 
-ncertam.  Among  an  unenlightened  people,  every  imposture 
IS  Ukely  to  be  pracUsed ;  for  ignorance  is  the  parent  of  creduli- 
ty.  Nothmg,  therefore,  which  the  Greeks  have  transmitted 
to  us,  concernmg  their  earliest  state,  can  be  relied  on 

Poets  were  the  first  who  began  to  record  the  actions  of  their 
countrymen;  and  it  is  a  part  of  their  art  to  strike  the  ima^ina- 
tion,  even  at  the  expense  of  probability.  For  this  reason,  in 
the  earliest  accounts  of  Greece,  we  are  presented  with  the 
machmations  of  gods  and  demi-gods,  the  adventures  of  he- 
roes and  giants,  the  ravages  of  monsters  and  dragons,  and  all 
the  potency  of  charms  and  enchantments.  Man,  plain  histori- 
cal man,  seems  to  have  no  share  in  the  picture ;  and,  while 
the  reader  wanders  through  the  most  delightful  scenes  the 
imagmation  can.  offer,  he  is  scarcely  once  presented  with  the 
actions  of  such  a  being  as  himself. 

It  would  be  vain,  therefore,  and  beside  the  present  pur- 
pose,  to  give  an  historical  air  to  accounts,  which  were  never 
meant  to  be  transmitted  as  true.     Some  writers,  indeed,  have 
laboriously  undertaken  to  separate  the  truth  from  the  fabie 
and  to  give  us  an  unbroken  narrative,  from  the  first  dawning 
?    ^^^'^j^'^^y  ^o  t*^e  display  of  undoubted  history.     Thev  have 
levelled  down  all  mythology  to   their   own  apprehensions: 
every  fable  is  made  to  look  with  an  air  of  probability.     In 
stead  of  a  golden  fleece,  Jason  goes  in  pursuit  of  a  ^real 
treasure;    mstead  of  destroying  a  chimera,  Bellerophon  re- 
claims  a  mountain ;  mstead  of  a  hydra,  Hercules  overcome! 
A  robber. 

Thus,  the  fanciful  pictures  of  a  strong  imagination,  are 
'aught  to  assume  a  serious  severity;  and  tend  to  deceive  the 
reader  still  more,  by  offering,  in  the  garb  of  truth,  what  had 
been  meant  only  to  delight  and  allure  him. 

The  fabulous  age,  therefore,  of  Greece,  must  have  no  place 

A3  * 


4  THE  HISTOKX 

in  history.  It  is  now  too  late,  to  separate  tl.ost  oarts  which 
may  have  a  real  foundation  in  nature,  from  those  which 
owe  their  existence  wholly  to  the  imagination.  There  are  no 
races  left,  to  guide  us  in  that  intricate  pursuit.  The  devr3 
of  the  morning  are  past,  and  it  is  in  vain  to  attempt  con- 
tinuing the  chase,  in  meridian  splendour.  It  will  be  suffi 
cient,  therefore,  for  us  to  observe,  that  Greece,  like  most  other 
countries,  of  whose  origin  we  have  any  notice,  was  at  first 
divided  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  each  commanded  by 
its  own  sovereign.  \ 

Ancient  Greece,  which  is  now  the  southern  part  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  is  bounded,  on  the  east,  by  the  iEgaean  sea,  no>» 
called  the  Archipelago;  on  the  south,  by  the  Cretan  oi 
Cawdian  sea  ;  on  the  west,  by  the  Ionian  sea ;  and,  on  the 
north,  by  Illyria  and  Thrace.  Of  so  very  narrow  extent, 
and  so  very  contemptible,  with  regard  to  territory,  was  that 
country,  which  gave  birth  to  all  the  arts  of  war  and  peace ; 
which  produced  the  greatest  generals,  philosophers,  poets, 
painters,  architects,  and  statuaries,  that  the  world  ever  boast- 
ed ;  which  overcame  the  most  powerful  monarchs,  and  dis- 
persed the  most  numerous  armies  that  were  ever  brought  into 
^he  field,  and  at  last  became  the  instructer  of  all  mankind. 

It  is  said,  in  scripture,  that  Javan,  the  son  of  Japeth,  was  the 
father  of  all  those  nations  that  went  under  the  general  denomi- 
nation of  Greeks.  Of  his  four  sons,  Elisha,  or  Elias,  is 
said  to  have  given  name  to  the  Hellenes,  a  general  name  by 
which  the  Greeks  were  known.  Tharsis,  the  second  son,  is 
thought  to  have  settled  in  Achaia;  Chittim  in  Macedonia; 
and  Dodanim,  the  fourth  son,  in  Tbessalyand  Epirus.  How 
they  portioned  out  the  country,  what  revolutions  they  ex- 
perienced, or  what  wars  they  maintained,  a*  e  utterly  unknown  • 
and,  indeed,  the  history  of  petty  barbarous  states,  if  known^ 
would  hardly  recompense  the  trouble  of  inquiry. 

In  those  early  times,  kingdoms  were  inconsiderable.  A 
single  city,  with  a  few  leagues  of  land,  was  often  honoured 
with  that  magnificent  appellation:  it  would  therefore  embar- 
rass history,  to  enter  into  the  domestic  privacy  of  every  little 
state ;  as  it  would  be  a  subject  rather  for  the  economist,  than 
the  politician.  It  will  suffice,  to  observe,  that  Sicyon  is  said 
to  have  been  the  most  ancient  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  be- 
ginning of  this  petty  sovereignty,  is  placed,  by  historians,  in 
the  year  of  the  world,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifteen ; 
before  Jesus  Christ,  two  thousand  eighty-nine ;  and  before  the 
first  Olympiad,  one  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirteen. 
The  first  king,  was  ^gialeus.  Its  duration  is  said  to  have 
Cjwn  a  thousand  years 


#' 


><. 


fi 


OF  GREECE.  5 

The  kingdom  of  Argos,  in  Peloponnesus,  b€gan  si  a  jlt 
thousand  and  eighty  years  before  the  first  Olympiad,  in  '  ' 
the  time  of  Abraham.     The  first  king  was  Inachus. 

The  kingdom  of  Mycaenae  succeeded.  The  scat  of  gov- 
ernment was  translated  thither,  from  Argos,  by  Perseus,  the 
grandson  of  Acrisius,  the  last  king  of  that  country ;  whom 
Perseus  unfortunately  slew.  The  kings  who  reigned  at  My 
caehae,  after  Perseus,  were  Electryon,  Sthenelus,  and  Eurys 
theus ;  the  latter  of  whom  was  driven  out  by  the  Heraclidae^ 
or  the  descendants  of  Hercules,  who  made  themselves  mas- 
l^s  of  Peloponnesus. 

The  kingdom  of  Athens  was  first  founded  by  Ce-    .    -j^ 
crops,  an  Egyptian.     This  prince,  having  settled  in    ^'aaq 
Atiica,  divided  the  whole  country,  subject  to  him,  into 
/welve  districts,  and  also  established  a  court  forjudging  causes^ 
entitled   the  Areopagus.     Amphictyon,  the   third  king  of 
A^thens,  procured  a  confederacy  among  the  twelve  states  of 
Greece,  which  assembled  twice  a  year,  at  Thermopylae ;  there, 
/.o  offer  up  common  sacrifices,  and  to  consult  for  the  common 
interests  of  thd  association.     Theseus,  one  of  the  succeeding 
tings  of  this  state,  united  the  twelve  boroughs  of  Cecrops 
into  one  city. 

Codrus  was  the  last  of  this  line :  he  devoted  himself  to 
death  for  his  people.  The  Heraclidae  having  made  an  irrup- 
tion as  far  as  the  gates  of  Athens,  the  oracle  declared  that 
they  should  be  conquerors,  whose  king  should  fall  in  this  con- 
test. To  take  the  earliest  advantage,  therefore,  of  this  an- 
swer, Codrus  disguised  himself  in  the  habit  of  a  peasant ;  and, 
provoking  one  of  the  enemy's  soldiers,  was  killed  by  him. 

Whereupon,  the  Athenians  sent  a  herald  to  demand  the 
body  of  their  king,  which  message  struck  such  a  damp  into 
the  enemy,  that  they  departed,  without  striking  another  blow. 

After  Codrus,  the  title  of  king  was  extinguished  among 
the  Athenians.  Medon,  his  son,  was  set  at  the  head  of  the 
commonwealth,  with  the  title  of  archon  ;  which  sig^iifies 
chief  governor.  The  first  of  this  denomination,  had  their 
places  for  life ;  but  the  Athenians,  growing  weary  of  a  gov- 
eniment,  which  repressed  their  love  of  freedom,  abridged  the 
term  of  the  archon's  power,  to  ten  years ;  and  at  last  made 
the  office  elective  every  year. 

.  m.  The  kingdom  of  Thebes  was  first  foundea  by  Cad- 
g  *  *  mus.  This  hero,  coming,  by  sea,  from  the  coast  of 
'  Phoenicia,  settled  in  that  part  of  the  country  Which 
was  afterwards  called  Boeotia.  He  there  built  the  city  of 
Thebes,  which,  from  his  own  name,  he  called  Cadmaea,  and 
there  fixed  his  seat  of  power  and  dominion.  The  adventures  o^ 


§  THE  HISTORY 

his  unhappy  posterity,  Laius,  Jocasto,  Oedipus,  Eteocles,  and 
Polynices,  make  a  shining  figure  among  the  poetical  fiction! 
of  that  period. 

The  kingdom  of  Sparta  or  Lacedaemon,  is  sup]>osed  to 
have  been  first  instituted  by  Lelia.  Helena,  the  tenth  in  suc- 
cession from  this  monarch,  is  equally  famous  for  her  beau- 
ty and  infidelity.  She  had  not  lived  above  three  ycai's  with 
her  husband,  Menelaus,  before  she  was  carried  off  by  Paris, 
the  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy.  This  seems  to  be  the  first 
occasion  in  which  the  Greeks  united  in  one  common  cause. 
The  Greeks  took  Troy,  after  a  ten  years'  siege,  much  about 
the  time  that  Jephthah  was  the  judge  in  Israel. 

Corinth  began  later  than  the  other  cities  above  mentioned, 

.    « ,    to  be  formed  into  a  state,  or  to  be  governed  by  its 

9fi9s  *  ^^'^S^*  It  was,  at  first,  subject  to  Argos  and  Mycaenae; 

but  Sisyphus,  the  son  of  iEolus,  made  himself  mas- 

.    *,    ter  of  it;  and,  when  his  descendants   were   dispos- 

*      '  sessed,  Bachis  assumed  the   reins   of   power.      The 

'^  '  government,  after  this,  became  aristocratical ;  a  chief 
magistrate  being  annually  chosen,  by  the  name  of  prytanni 
At  last,  Cypselus  having  gained  the  people,  usurped  the  su- 
preme authority,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  son  Periander ; 
who  was  ranked  among  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  from 
the  love  he  bore  to  learning,  and  his  encouragement  of  its 
professors. 

The  kingdom  of  Macedonia  was  first  governed  by  Cara- 
nus,  descended  from  Hercules ;  and  subsisted  from  his  time 
till  the  defeat  of  Perseus  by  the  Romans,  a  space  of  six  hun- 
dred and  twenty-six  years. 

Such,  is  the  picture  Greece  offers,  in  its  earliest  infancy. 
A  combination  of  little  states,  each  governed  by  its  respec- 
tive sovereign,  yet  all  uniting  for  their  mutual  safety  and 
general  advantage.  Still,  however,  their  intestine  conten- 
tions were  carried  on  with  great  animosity ;  and,  as  it  hap- 
pens, in  all  petty  states,  under  the  dominion  of  a  single  com- 
mander, the  jealousies  of  the  princes  were  a  continual  cause 
of  discord.  From  this  distressful  situation,  those  states,  by 
degrees  began  to  emerge ;  a  different  spirit  began  to  seize  the 
people,  and,  sick  of  the  contentions  of  their  princes,  they 
desired  to  be  free.  A  spirit  of  liberty  prevailed  all  ovei 
Greece;  and  a  general  change  of  government  was  effected.^ 
in  every  part  of  the  country,  except  in  Macedonia.  Thus, 
monarchy  gave  way  to  a  republican  government ;  which,  how- 
ever, was  diversified  into  as  many  various  forms,  as  there 
were  different  cities,  according  to  the  different  genius  and 
peculiar  character  of  each  people 


» 


OF  GREECE.  7 

All  these  cities,  though  seemingly  different  from  each  other 
Ilk  tlieir  laws  and  interest,  were  united,  by  one  common  Ian* 
guage,  one  religion,  and  a  national  pride,  that  taught  them 
to  consider  all  other  nations  as  barbarous  and  feeble.  Even 
Egypt,  itself,  from  whence  they  had  derived  many  of  their 
arts  and  institutions,  was  considered  in  a  very  subordinate 
ightj  and  rather  as  a  half  barbai-ous  predecessor,  than  an  en 
lightened  rival. 

To  make  this  union  among  the  states  of  Greece  still 
stronger,  games  were  instituted,  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
.ry,  with  rewards  for  excellence,  in  every  pursuit  These 
sports  were  instituted  for  very  serious  and  useful  purposes: 
chey  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  several  states  meeting 
together;  they  gave  them  a  greater  zeal  for  their  common 
religion;  they  exercised  the  youth  for  the  purposes  of  war- 
And  increased  that  vigour  and  activity,  which  was  then  of 
the  utmost  importance  in  deciding  the  fate  of  a  battle. 

But  their  chief  bond  of  union  arose  from  the  council  of  thf 
Amphictyons ;  which  was  instituted  by  Amphictyon,  kinj?  of 
Athens,  as  is  already  mentioned,  and  was  appointed  to  be 
held,  twice  a  year,  at  Thermopylae,  to  deliberate  for  the  i^ene- 
ral  good  of  those  states,  of  whose  deputies  it  was  composed. 
1  he  states,  who  sent  deputies  to  the  council,  were  twelve  •— 
?^  J^^ssalians,  the  Thebans,  the  Dorians,  the  lonians,  the 
Perhabeans,  the  Magnates,  the  Locrians,  the  Oetans,  the 
Fthiotes,  the  Maleans,  the  Phocians,  and  the  Dolopians. 

Each  of  those  cities  which  had  a  right  to  assist  at  the 
Amphictyonic  council,  was  obliged  to  send  two  deputies  tu 
every  meeting.  The  one  was  entitled  the  hieromnemon,  who 
took  care  of  the  interests  of  religion ;  the  other  was  called 
the  pylagoras,  and  had  in  charge  the  civil  interest  of  his 
community.  Each  of  these  deputies,  however  differing  in 
his  functions,  enjoyed  an  equal  power  of  determining  all 
affairs  relative  to  the  general  interests  of  Greece. 

But,  although  the  number  of  deputies  seems  to  have  been 
settled  originally  so  as  to  answer  the  number  of  votes  which 
each  city  was  allowed,  yet,  in  process  of  time,  or  on  some  ex- 
traordinary occasions,  the  principal  cities  assumed  a  power 
ot  sending  more  than  one  pylagoras,  to  assist  in  a  critical 
^"l^pncy,  or  to  serve  the  purposes  of  a  faction. 

When  the  deputies,  thus  appointed,  appeare-i  to  execute 
their  commission,  after  offering  up  sacrifices  to  Apollo,  Dia- 
na, Latona^  and  Minerva,  they  took  an  oath,  implying,  that 
they  would  never  subvert  any  city  of  the  Amphictyons,  never 
stop  the  course  of  waters,  either  in  war  or  peace,  and  that 
Wiey  would  oppose  any  attempts  to  lessen  the  revereivce  and 


€ 


THE  HISTORY 


authority  of  the  gods,  to  whom  they  had  paid  their  adora 
lion.  Thiu,  all  offences  against  religion,  all  instances  of  im- 
piety and  profanation,  all  contests  between  the  Grecian  states 
and  cities,  came  under  the  particular  cognizance  of  the  Am- 
phictyons ;  who  had  a  right  to  determine,  to  impose  fines, 
and  even  to  levy  forces,  and  to  make  war  against  those  who 
offered  to  rebel  against  their  sovereign  authority. 

These  different  motives  to  confederacy,  united  the  Greeks, 
for  a  time,  into  a  body  of  great  power,  and  greater  emulation. 
By  this  association,  a  country,  not  half  so  large  as  England, 
was  able  to  dispute  the  empire  of  the  earth,  with  the  most 
powerful  monarchs  of  the  world.  By  this  association,  they 
not  only  resisted  the  numerous  armies  of  Persia;  buttlispers- 
ed,  routed,  and  destroyed  them  ;  reducing  their  pride  so  low, 
as  to  make  them  submit  to  conditions  of  peace,  as  shameful 
to  the  conquered,  as  glorious  to  the  conquerors. 

But,  among  all  the  cities  of  Greece,  there  were  two,  that, 
by  their  merit,  their  valour,  and  their  wisdom,  particularly 
distinguished  themselves  from  the  rest.  These  were  Athens 
and  Lacedsemon.  As  these  cities  served  as  an  example  of 
bravery  or  learning  to  the  rest,  and  as  the  chief  burthen  of 
every  foreign  war  devolved  upon  them,  it  v/ill  be  proper  to 
enter  into  their  particular  history  with  greater  minuteness, 
and  to  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  genius,  character, 
manners,  and  government,  of  their  respective  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  n. 

Of  the  Government  of  Sparta^  and  the  Ltojos  of  Lyeurgtu. 

Although  the  kingdom  of  Lacedaemon  was  not  so  consid- 
erable as  that  of  Athens,  yet,  as  it  was  of  much  earlier  institu- 
tion, it  demands  our  first  attention.  Lacedaemon,  as  observed 
before,  was,  in  the  beginning,  governed  by  kings;  of  which, 
thirteen  held  the  reigns  of  power,  in  succession,  of  the  race 
of  the  Pelopidae.  As,  during  this  dark  interval,  there  were 
no  fixed  laws  to  limit  the  prerogative,  and  no  ideas  of  true 
government  among  the  people,  it  does  not  appear  that  there 
.were  any  considerable  encroachments  made,  cither  on  the 
side  of  the  king,  or  that  of  the  people. 

Under  the  race  of  the  Heraclidae,  who  succeeded,  instead  of 
one  king,  the  people  admitted  two^  who  governed  with  equal 
authority.  The  cause  of  this  change  seems  to  have  spnmg 
from  a  very  particular  accident.  Aristodemus,  dying,  kft 
iwo  sons,  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  twins,  so  much  alike,  that 
%i  was  hartlly  possible  to  distinguish  them  asunder.     Hence, 


•      •  OF  GREECE.  9» 

the  hint  was  taken,  by  the  mother,  of  fixing  the  crown  upon 
both ;  so  that  when  the  Spartans  came  for  a  king,  she  was 
either  unable  or  unwilling  to  decide  whieli  of  them  was  first 
bcm,  or  which  had  the  justest  pretensions.  This  form  of 
government  conlihued  for  several  succeeding  centuries ;  and 
although  the  one  was  almost  ever  at  variance  with  his  asso- 
ciate on  the  throne,  yet  the  government  remained  entire.        | 

It  was  during  this  succession,  that  slavery  was  first  institut 
ed  in  Sparta.  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  having  granted  tl.? 
countrymen  of  Sparta  the  same  pi'ivileges  with  the  citizens, 
Agis  reversed  what  his  prediecessors  had  done  in  favour  of 
the  peasants,  and  imposed  upon  them  a  tribute.  The  Helotes 
were  the  only  people  that  would  not  acquiesce  in  this  im- 
post, but  rose  in  rebellion,  to  vindicate  their  rights:  the  citi- 
zens, however,  prevailed,  the  Helotes  were  subdued,  and 
made  prisoners  of  war.  As  a  still  greatei-  punishment,  they 
and  their  posterity  were  condemned  to  perpetual  slavery; 
and,  to  increase  their  miseries  still  more,  all  other  slaves  were 
called  by  the  general  name  of  Helotes. 

It  would  appear,  from  hence,  that  this  little  state  was  gov- 
erned with  turbulence  and  oppression,  and  required  the  curb 
of  sovere  laws  and  rigorous  discipline.  These  severities  and 
rigorous  discipline  were  at  last  imposed  upon  it  by  Lycur* 
gus ;  one  of  the  first  and  most  extraordinary  legislators,  that 
ever  appeared  among  mankind. 

There  is,  perhaps,  nothing  more  remarkable,  in  profane 
history,  yet  nothing  better  attested,  than"  what  relates  to  the 
laws  and  government  of  Lycurgus.  What,  indeed,  can  be 
more  aniazing,  than  to  behold  a  mutinous  and  savage  race 
of  mankind,  yielding  submission  to  laws  which  controlled 
every  sensual  pleasure,  and  every  piivate  affection;  to  behold 
them  giving  up^  for  the  good  of  the  state,  all  the  comforts  and 
conveniences  of  private  life,  and  making  a  state  of  domestic 
privacy  more  severe  and  terrible  than  the  most  painful  cam 
paigns,  and  the  most  warlike  duties.  Yet,  all  this  was  effect- 
ed, by  the  perseverance  and  authority  of  a  single  legislator, 
who  gave  the  first  lesson  of  hard  resignation,  in  his  own 
generous  example. 

Lycurgus  was  the  son  of  Eunomtis,  one  of  the  two  kings 
who  reigned  together  in  Sparta.  The  two  kings  dying  with- 
out  appa»ent  issue,  the  right  of  succession  rested  in  Lycur- 
gus ;  who  accordingly  assumed  the  administration.  But  art 
unexpected  event  interrupted  his  promotion :  the  queen,  his 
sister-in-law,  having  declared  that  she  was  soon  likely  to  have 
an  heir,  his  right  became  doubtful.  A  man  of  less  probity 
would  have  «sed  every  precaution  to  secure  himself  upon  the 


10 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


11 


throne;  and  a  proposal,  which  was  made  him  by  the  cjueeni 
seemed  to  secure  his  pretensions.  She  offered  to  destroy  the 
birth,  upon  condition  that  he  would  marry  her,  and  take  hei 
into  a  share  of  power. 

Lycurgus  wisely  smothered  his  resentment  to  so  unnatural 
a  proposal;  and,  fearful  that  she  might  use  means  to  put  her 
project  in  execution,  assured  her,  that,  as  soon  as  the  child 
was  born,  he  would  take  upon  himself  to  remove  it  out  of  the 
way.  The  child  proved  to  be  a  boy ;  which  Lycurgus  com 
manded  should  be  brought  to  him,  as  he  was  at  supper  with 
the  magistrates:  to  them,  he  presented  the  child  as  their  king; 
and,  to  testify  his  own  and  the  people's  joy,  gave  him  the 
name  of  Charilaus ;  which  signifies,  "  the  people's  joy.** 
Thus,  Lycurgus  sacrificed  his  ambition  to  his  duty;  and  still 
more,  continued  his  regency,  not  as  king,  but  governor.  How- 
ever, dreading  the  resentment  of  the  queen,  and  finding  the 
state  in  great  disorder,  he  resolved,  by  travelling,  to  avoid  the 
dangers  of  the  one,  and  to  produce  a  remedy  for  the  defects 
of  the  other. 

Thus,  resolving  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  all  the 
improvements  of  other  nations,  and  to  consult  the  most  ex- 
perienced persons  he  could  meet  in  the  art  of  government,  he 
began  with  the  island  of  Crete;  whose  hard  and  severe  law* 
were  very  much  admired.  In  this  island,  the  handicraft  trades 
were  brought  to  some  degree  of  perfection.  There,  they 
wrought  in  copper  and  iron,  and  made  armour,  in  which  they 
danced,  with  a  confused  noise  of  bells,  at  the  sacrifices  of 
their  gods.  It  is  from  them,  that  the  art  of  navigation  wa* 
first  known  in  Greece,  and  from  them  many  legislators  de- 
rived the  principles  of  their  respective  institutions. 

From  Crete,  Lycurgus  passed  over  mto  Asia,  where  he 
still  found  new  information,  and  is  said  to  have  first  made  the 
discovery  of  the  works  of  Homer.  Thence,  he  went  into 
Egypt,  and  is  said,  by  some,  to  have  had  conferences  with 
the  gymnosophists  of  India.  But,  while  tlius  employed 
abroad,  his  presence  began  to  be  greatly  wanted  at  home 
All  parties  conspired  to  wish  his  coming;  and  many  messa- 
ges wei-e  sent,  to  hasten  his  return.  The  kings  themselves 
importuned  him  to  that  effect ;  and  informed  him,  that  the 
people  had  arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  disorder,  that  nothing 
but  his  authority  could  control  their  licentiousness.  In  fact, 
every  thing  tended  to  the  unavoidable  destruction  of  the  state, 
wid  nothing  but  his  presence  was  wished,  to  check  its  increas- 
ing dissolution. 

Lycurgus,  at  length  persuaded  to  return,  found  the  people 
wearied  out  with  their  o^vn  importunities,  and  ready  to  re» 


•tM 


ceive  any  new  impressions  that  he  might  attempt.  The  oor- 
ruption  being  general,  he  found  it  necessary  to  change  the 
whole  form  of  the  government ;  sensible  that  a  few  particular 
laws  would  produce  no  great  effect.  But,  considering  the 
efficacy  of  religion  in  promoting  every  new  institution,  ho 
went  first  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  at  Delphos ;  where 
he  met  a  reception  that  might  flatter  his  highest  ambition, 
for  he  was  saluted, by  the  priestess, as  the  friend  of  the  gods, 
and  rather  as  a  god,  than  a  man.  As  to  his  new  institution, 
also,  he  was  told,  that  the  gods  heard  his  prayers,  and  that 
the  commonwealth  he  was  going  to  establish,  would  be  the 
most  excellent  and  durable  upon  earth. 

Thus  encouraged,  on  his  return  to  Sparta,  Lycurgus  first 
communicated  his  designs  to  his  particular  friends ;  and  then, 
by  degrees,  gained  over  the  leading  men  to  his  party ;  until 
things  being  ripe  for  a  change,  he  ordered  thirty  of  the  prin- 
cipal men  to  appear  armed  in  the  market-place.  Charilaus, 
who  was  at  that  time  king,  seemed,  at  first,  willing  to  oppose 
this  revolution ;  but,  being  intimidated  by  a  superior  force, 
he  took  shelter  in  the  temple  of  Minerva;  whence,  being  pre- 
vailed upon  by  his  subjects,  and  being  also  of  a  flexible  tem- 
per, he  came  forth,  and  joined  the  confederacy.  The  people 
soon  acquiesced  under  a  set  of  institutions,  evidently  calculat- 
ed for  their  improvement ;  and  gladly  acknowledged  submis- 
sion to  laws,  which  leaned,  with  equal  weight,  upon  every  rank 
of  society. 

To  continue  the  kings.^  with  a  shadow  of  power,  he  confirm- 
ed them  in  their  right  of  succession,  as  before  ;  but  diminish- 
ed their  authority,  by  instituting  a  senate,  which  was  to  serve 
as  a  counterpoise  between  their  prerogative  and  the_  people. 
They  still,  however,  had  all  their  former  marks  of  outward 
dignity  and  respect.  They  had  the  chief  seats  in  every  pub- 
lic assembly ;  in  voting,  they  were  allowed  first  to  give  their 
opinion ;  they  received  ambassadors  and  sti'angers,  and  over- 
looked public  buildings  and  highways.  In  the  field,  they  were 
possessed  of  greater  power ;  they  conducted  the  arniies  of  the 
state,  and  were  attended  by  judges,  field-deputies,  and  a  gene- 
ral of  the  horse.  However,  they  were  not  entirely  at  liberty, 
even  in  wai*,  as  ♦hey  received  their  orders  from  the  senate; 
which,  though  for  the  most  part,  discretionary,  yet  they  were 
sometimes  forced  to  march  against  the  enemy,  or  return 
home,  when  they  least  desired  to  retreat. 

Th^^vernment,  hitherto,  had  been  unsteady ;  tending,  at 

one  time^  towards  despotism,  at  another  to  democracy ;  but 

the  senate  instituted  by  Lycurgus,  served  as  a  check  upon 

both    nd  kept  the  state  balanced  in  tranquillity.    This  body 

n 


12 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


19 


% 


which  was  composed  of  twenty^ight  members,  founded 
fheir  chief  pohcy  in  espousing  the  side  of  the  kings,  when 
»he  people  were  grasping  at  too  ipuch  power;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  interest  of  the  people,  whenever  the  kinus 
attempted  to  carry  their  authority  too  far. 

The  senators  consisted  of  those  who  had  aided  Lycurijuf 
in  his  designs,  as  well  as  of  several  of  the  citizens  remarkable 
lor  their  private  virtues ;  but  none  were  eligible  till  sixty 
years  of  age.  They  were  continued  for  life,  except  upon  an  J 
notorious  crime ;  and  this,  as  it  prevented  the  inconveniencies 
of  too  frequent  a  change,  so  it  was  a  lasting  reward  to  the 
old,  and  a  noble  incentive  to  the  young.  They  formed  the 
supreme  court  of  judicature;  and,  though  there  lay  an  an- 
peal  from  them  to  the  people,  yet,  as  they  were  convened 
only  at  the  pleasure  of  the  senate,  and  as  the  senators  were 
not  responsible  for  any  wrong  judgment,  their  decrees  gene 
rally  passed  without  an  appeal. 

Indeed,  for  several  ages,  such  was  the  caution,  and  such  the 
integrity,  of  this  tribunal,  that  none  seemed  desirous  of  seek- 
mg  larther  justice,  and  both  parties  acquiesced  in  their  de- 
crees. However,  the  great  power  of  which  the  senate  was 
.hus  possessed,  was,  about  a  century  afterwards,  tempered  by 
the  erecUon  of  a  superior  court,  palled  the  court  of 'the 
ephorts  which  consisted  of  but  five  in  number,  elected  annu- 
ally into  office.  They  were  chosen  from  the  people,  and  had 
a  power  of  arresUng  and  imprisoning  the  persons  even  of 
th«r  kings,  if  they  acted  unbecoming  their  station. 

The  people,  also,  had  a  nominal  share  in  the  government 
1  hey  had  their  assemblies,  consisting  of  citizens  only ;  and 
also  tneir  great  convention,  of  all  persons  who  were  frce,ot 
the  state.  But  this  power  of  convening,  was  but  a  mere  mat 
ter  o!  form ;  as  the  senate  alone  was  permitted  to  call  them 
together,  and  as  it  was  in  the  option  of  that  body  to  dismiss 
them  at  pleasure.  The  subject  of  deliberation,  also,  was  to 
be  ol  their  proposal ;  while  the  people,  denied  the  privilejce 
ot  debating  or  discussing,  could  only  reject  or  ratify,  with 
laconic  decision.  To  keep  them  still  more  helpless,  they  were 
left  out  of  all  offices  of  the  state,  and  weie  considered  merely 
as  machines,  which  their  wiser  fellow-citia  ns  were  to  con 
duct  and  employ. 

So  small  a  degree  of  power  granted  to  the  people,  might  be 
apt  to  destroy  these  institutions,  in  their  infancy :  but,  to  re- 
concile them  to  the  change,  Lycurgus  boldly  resolved  to  give 
them  a  share  in  those  lands,  of  which,  by  the  increasing 
riches  of  some,  and  the  dissipation  of  othei^  they  had  been 
deprived.     One  of  the  most  r^jfined  strokes  in  this  philoso- 


pher's legislation,  seems  to  have  been,  to  keep  the  people  in 
plenty  and  dependence.  The  majority  of  the  people  M'cre, 
at  that  time,  so  poor,  that  they  were  destitute  of  every  kind 
of  property ;  whilst  a  small  number  of  individuals  were  pos- 
sessed of  all  the  lands  and  the  wealth  of  the  country.  In  ol- 
der, therefore,  to  banish  the  insolence^  the  fraud,  and  the  luxu- 
ry, of  the  one,  as  well  as  the  misery,  tlie  repining,  and  the 
factious  despair,  of  tlie  others,  he  persuaded  the  majority, 
and  forced  the  rest,  to  give  up  all  their  lands  to  the  comnrion- 
wealth^  and  to  make  a  new  division  of  them,  that  they  might 
all  live  togetlier  in  perfect  equality.  Thus,  all  the  sensual 
goods  of  life,  were  equally  distributed  among  the  gover- 
nors and  the  governed ;  and  superior  merit  alone  conferred 
superior  distinction.    . 

Lycurgus  accordingly  divided  all  the  lands  of  Laconia  irto 
thirty  thousand  parts,  and  those  of  Sparta  into  nine  thou- 
sand ;  and  these  he  portioned  out  to  the  respective  inhabitants 
of  each  district.  Each  portion  was  sufficient  to  maintain  a 
family,  in  that  frugal  manner  he  proposed  ;  and,  though  the 
kings  had  a  larger  share  assigned  them,  to  support  their  dig- 
nity, yet  their  tables  had  rather  an  air  of  decency  and  compc 
frency,  than  of  superfluity  or  profusion. 

It  is  said,  that,  some  years  after,  as  Lycurgus  was  return- 
mg  from  a  long  journey,  observing  how  equally  tlie  corn 
was  divided,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  he  was  heard  to  ob- 
serve, smiling  on  those  next  him,  Does  not  Laconia  look  like  an 
estate^  which  several  brothers  have  been  dividing  amongst  them. 

But  it  would  have  answered  no  permanent  put-pose,  to  di- 
vide the  lands,  if  the  money  were  still  suffered  to  accumulate. 
To  prevent,  therefore,  every  other  distinction,  but  that  of  mer- 
it,  he  resolved  to  level  down  all  fortune  to  one  standard.  He 
did  not,  indeed,  strip  those  possessed  of  gold  or  silver,  of  their 
property ;  but,  what  was  equivalent,  he  cried  down  its  value, 
and  suffered  nothing  but  iron  money  to  pass,  in  exchange  for 
every  commodity.  This  coin  also  he  made  so  heavy,  and 
fixed  at  so  low  a  rate,  that  a  cart  and  two  oxen  were  required 
to  carry  home  a  sum  of  ten  minas,  or  about  twenty  pounds 
English ;  and  a  whole  house  was  necessary  to  keep  it  in. 

This  iron  money  had  no  currency  among  any  other  of  the 
Grecian  states ;  who,  so  far  from  esteeming  it,  treated  it  with 
the  utmost  contempt  and  ridicule.  From  the  neglect  of  for- 
eigners, the  Spartans  themselves  began  to  despise  it;  so  that 
money  was  at  last  brought  into  disuse,  and  few  troubled  them- 
selves with  more  than  was  barely  sufficient  to  supply  their  ne- 
cessities. Thus,  not  only  riches,  but  their  attendairt  train  of 
avarice,  fraud,  rapine,  and  luxury,  were  banished  from  this 


♦ 


N 


14 


THE  HISTORY 


simple  state ;  and  the  people  found,  in  ignorance  of  riches,  a 
happy  substitute  for  the  want  of  those  refinements  they  bestow. 

But  these  institutions  were  not  thought  sufficient  to  prevent 
that  tendency  which  mankind  have  to  private  excess.  A  third 
regulation  was  therefore  made,  commanding  that  all  meals 
should  be  in  public.  He  ordained,  that  all  the  men,  witliout 
distinction,  should  eat  in  one  common  hall ;  and,  lest  stran* 
gers  should  attempt  to  corrupt  his  citizens  by  their  example^ 
a  law  was  expressly  made  against  their  continuance  in  the 
city.  By  these  means,  frugality  was  not  only  necessary,  but 
the  use  of  riches  was,  at  once,  abolished.  Every  man  sent 
montlily  his  provisions  to  the  common  stock,  with  a  little 
money,  for  ether  contingent  expenses.  These  consisted  of 
one  bushel  of  flour,  eight  measures  of  wine,  five  pounds  pf 
cheese,  and  two  pounds  and  a  half  of  figs. 

The  tables  consisted  of  fifteen  persons  each ;  where  non* 
could  be  admitted  but  by  the  consent  of  the  whole  company. 
Every  one,  without  exception  of  persons,  was  obliged  to  be  at 
the  common  meal;  and  a  long  time  after,  when  Agis  retuni- 
ed  from  a  successful  expedition,  he  was  punished  and  repri- 
manded, for  having  eaten  with  his  queen,  in  private.  The 
very  children  eat  of  these  meals ;  and  were  carried  Uiither, 
as  to  a  school  of  temperance  and  wisdom. 

At  these  homely  repasts,  no  rude  or  immoral  conversation 
was  permitted ;  no  loquacious  disputes  or  ostentatious  talking. 
Each  endeavoured  to  express  his  sentiments  with  the  utmost 
perspicuity  and  conciseness :  wit  was  admitted,  to  season  the 
banquet,  and  secrecy  to  give  it  security.  As  soon  as  a  young 
man  came  in*o  the  room,  the  oldest  man  in  company  used  to 
say  to  him,  pointing  to  the  door,  «  Nothing  spoken  here  must 
go  that  way." 

Black  broth  was  their  favourite  dish.  Of  what  ingredients 
U  was  made,  is  not  known ;  but  they  used  no  flesh  in  their 
entertainments.  It  probably  resembled  those  Icnten  soups, 
which  are  still  m  use  on  the  continent.  Dionysius,  the  tyrant 
found  their  fare  very  unpalatable ;  but,  as  the  cook  asserted' 
ihe  broth  was  nothing,  without  the  seasoning  of  fatigue  and 
hunger.  *  ** 

An  injunction  so  rigorous,  which  thus  cut  off*  all  the  deli- 
cacies and  refinements  of  luxury,  was  by  no  means  pleasing 
-o  the  rich;  who  took  every  occasion  to  insult  the  lawgiver 
^pon  his  new  regulations.  The  tumults  they  excited  were  fre' 
quent ;  and,  in  one  of  these,  a  young  fellow,  whose  name  was 
Alexander,  struck  out  one  of  Lycurgus's  eyes.  But  he  had 
the  majority  of  the  people  on  his  side ;  who,  provoked  at  th* 


bF  GRfnSCE. 


t5 


•nitrftge,  delivered  the  young  man  into  his  hands,  to  treat  hihtf 
with  all  proper  severity. 

Lycnrgus,  instead  of  testifying  any  brutal  resentment,  won 
over  his  aggressor  by  all  the  arts  of  affability  and  tenderness  ;' 
till,  at  last,  from  being  one  of  the  proudest  and  most  turbu- 
lent men  of  Sparta,  he  became  an  example  of  wisdom  and 
moderation,  and  a  useful  assistant  to  Lycurgtis,  in  promoting 
his  new  institutions. 

Thus,  undaunted  by  opposition,  and  steady  in  his  designs, 
he  went  on  to  make  a  thorough  reformation  in  the  manners 
of  his  countrymen.  As  the  education  of  the  youth  was  one 
of  the  most  important  objects  of  a  legislator's  care,  he  took 
care  to  instil  such  early  principles,  that  children  should,  in  a 
manner,  be  bom  with  a  sense  of  order  and  discipline.  His 
grand  principle  was,  that  children  were  properly  the  posses- 
sion of  the  state,  and  belonged  to  the  community,  more  than 
to  their  parents.  To  this  end,  he  made  it  the  mother's  duty, 
to  use  such  diet  and  exercise,  as  might  fit  her  to  produce 
a  vigorous  and  healthy  offispring. 

As,  during  this  period,  all  institutions  were  tinctured  with 
the  savageness  of  the  times,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  Lycurgus 
ordained,  that  all  such  children,  as,  upon  a  public  view,  were 
deemed  deformed  or  weakly,  and  unfitted  for  a  future  life  of 
v\gour  and  fatigue,  should  be  exposed  to  perish  in  a  cavern 
noar  mount  Taygetus.  This  was  considered  as  a  public  pun- 
i'ihment  upon  the  mother;  and  it  was  thought  the  readiest 
way  to  lighten  the  state  of  future  incumbrance. 

Those  infants  that  were  born  without  any  capital  defects, 
were  adopted  as  children  of  the  state,  and  delivered  to  their 
parents,  to  be  nursed  with  severity  and  hardship.  From 
their  tenderest  age,  they  were  accustomed  to  make  no  choice 
in  their  eating,  nor  to  be  afraid  in  the  dark,  or  when  left 
alone ;  not  to  be  peevish  or  fretful ;  to  walk  barefoot,  to  lie 
hard  at  nights,  to  wear  the  same  clothes  winter  and  summer, 
and  to  fear  nothing  from  their  equals. 

At  the  age  of  seven  years,  they  were  taken  from  their  pa- 
rents, and  delivered  over  to  the  classes,  for  a  public  education. 
Their  discipline,  there,  was  little  else  than  an  apprenticeship 
to  hardship,  self-denial,  and  obedience.  In  these  classes,' 
one  of  the  boys,  more  advanced  and  experienced  than  the 
rest,  presided,  as  captain,  to  govern  and  chastise  the  refrac- 
tory. Their  very  sports  and  exercises  were  reguiated  ac- 
cording to  the  exactest  discipline,  and  made  up  of  labour 
and  fatigue.  They  went  barefoot,  with  their  heads  shaved, 
and  fought  with  one  another  naked. 

While  they  wefc  at  table,  it  was  usual  for  the  masters  to 


BS 


!l 


« 


16 


THE  HISTORY 


instruct  the  boys,  by  asking  them  questions  concerning  the 
nature  of  moral  actions,  or  the  different  merits  of  tlie  most 
noted  men  of  the  time.  The  boys  were  obliged  to  give  a 
quick  and  ready  answer,  which  was  to  be  accompanied  with 
their  reasons  in  the  concisest  manner ;  for  a  Spartan's  lan- 
guage was  as  sparing,  as  his  money  was  ponderous  and  bulky. 

All  ostentatious  learning  was  banished  from  this  simple 
commonwealth :  their  only  study  was  to  obey ;  their  only  pride 
was  to  suffer  hardship.  Every  ai't  was  practised,  to  harden 
them  against  adventitious  danger.  There  was  yearly  a  cus- 
tom of  whipping  them,  at  the  altar  of  Diana ;  and  the  boy 
that  bore  this  punishment  with  the  greatest  fortitude,  came 
off  victorious. 

This  was  inflicted  publicly,  before  the  eyes  of  their  parents, 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  city ;  and  many  were  known 
to  expire  under  the  severity  of  the  discipline,  without  utter- 
ing a  single  groan.  Even  their  own  fathers,  when  they  saw 
them  covered  \vith  blood  aud  wounds,  and  ready  to  expire, 
exhorted  them  to  persevere,  to  the  end,  with  constancy  and 
resolution.  Plutarch,  who  says  that  he  has  seen  several  chil- 
dren expire  under  this  cruel  treatment,  tells  us  of  one,  who 
having  stolen  a  fox,  and  hid  it  under  his  coat,  chose  rather  to 
let  it  tear  his  very  bowels,  than  discover  the  theft. 

Every  institution  tended  to  harden  the  body,  and  shai  pen 
the  mind  for  war.  In  order  to  prepare  them  for  stratagems 
and  sudden  incursions,  tl\e  boys  were  permitted  to  steal  from 
each  other;  but,  if  they  were  caught  in  the  fact,  they  were 
punished,  for  their  want  of  dexterity.  Such  a  permission, 
therefore,  was  little  better  than  a  prohibition  of  theft ;  since 
the  punishment  followed,  as  at  present,  in  case  of  detection. 
By  this  institution,  negligence  in  the  possessor  was  made  just- 
ly liable  to  the  loss  of  the  possessions,  a  consideration  which 
has  not  been  sufficiently  attended  to  by  subsequent  legislators. 

At  twelve  years  old,  the  boys  were  removed  into  other 
classes,  of  a  more  advanced  kind.  There,  in  order  to  crush 
the  seeds  of  vice,  which,  at  that  time,  began  to  appear,  their 
labour  and  discipline  were  increased  Avith  their  age.  They 
had  their  insiructer  from  among  the  men,  called  Paedonomus ; 
and,  under  him,  the  Irens ;  young  men,  selected  from  their 
own  body,  to  exercise  over  them  a  more  constant  and  imme- 
diate command.  They  had  now  their  skirmishes  between 
parties,  and  their  mock  fights,  between  larger  bodies.  In  these, 
they  often  fought  with  hands,  feet,  teeth,  and  nails,  with  such 
uostinacy,  that  it  was  common  to  see  them  lose  their  eyes, 
and  often  their  lives,  before  the  fray  determined.  Such,  was 
llkQ  constant  discipline  of  their  minority,  which  lasted  till  the 


OF  GREECE. 


17 


age  of  thirty ;  before  which,  they  were  not  permitted  to  mar- 
ry to  go  into  the  troops,  or  to  bear  any  ofhce  in  t^  state 

With  regard  to  the  females,  their  discipline  was  equally 
strict  with  the  former.  They  were  inured  to  a  constant 
course  of  labour  and  industry,  until  they  were  twenty  years 
old  ;  before  which  time,  they  were  not  considered  marriage- 
able. They  had  also  their  peculiar  exercises.  They  ran, 
wrestled,  pitched  the  bar,  and  performed  all  these  feats  na- 
ked, before  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens. 

An  education,  so  manlike,  did  not  fail  to  produce  in  the 
Spartan  women  corresponding  sentiments.  They  were  bold, 
frugal,  and  patriotic,  and  filled  with  a  love  of  military  glory. 
Some  foreign  women,  in  conversation  with  the  wife  of  Leoni 
las  saying  that  the  Spartan  women  alone  knew- how  to  gov- 
irn'the  men,  she  boldly  replied,  "  the  Spartan  women  alone 

jring  forth  men." 

A  mother  was  known  to  give  her  son,  who  was  going  to 
cattle,  his  shield,  with  this  remarkable  advice :  Return  with  i/, 
w  return  upon  it.  Implying,  that,  rather  than  throw  it  from 
him  in  flight,  he  should  be  borne  upon  it,  dead,  to  his  friends 
in  Sparta.  Another,  hearing  that  her  son  was  killed  in  fight- 
ing? for  his  country,  answered,  without  any  emotion,  "  It  is  tor 
that,  I  brought  him  into  the  world."  After  the  battle  ot 
Leuctra,  the  parents  of  those  who  died  in  the  action,  went  to 
the  temples,  to  thank  the  gods,  that  their  sons  had  done  their 
duty,  while  those  whose  children  survived  that  dreadful  day, 
seemed  inconsolable.  ^ 

Yet,  it  must  not  be  concealed,  that,  in  a  city  where  the  wo- 
men were  inspired  with  such  a  passion  for  military  glory, 
they  were  not  equally  remarkable  for  connubial  fidelity.  There 
was  no  law  against  adultery ;  and  an  exchange  of  husbands 
was  often  actually  practised  among  them.  This  was  alvyays 
by  the  mutual  consent  of  parties,  which  removed  the  tedious 
ceremonies  of  a  divorce.  One  reason  assigned  for  allowing 
this  mutual  liberty,  was,  not  so  much  to  gratify  licentious  de- 
sire, as  to  improve  the  breed  of  citizens,  by  matching  such  as 
were  possessed  of  mutual  inclination.  In  many  of  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus,  he  seems  to  admit,  that  private  vices  may  be- 
come public  benefits,  and  this  among  the  number. 

Besides  these  constitutional  regulations,  there  were  many 
other  general  maxims  laid  down,  that  obtained  amongst  them 
the  force  of  laws.  They  were  forbid  to  exercise  any  mechan- 
ic  art  The  chief  occupations  of  the  Spartans,  were  bodily 
exercises,  or  hunting.  The  Helotes,  who  had  lost  their  liber 
ty  *ome  centuries  before,  and  who  had  oeen  condemned  to 


1 


18 


THE  HISTORY 


I 

I 


perpetual  slavery,  tilled  their  lands  for  them,  receivings  for 
their  labour  a  bare  subsistence. 

The  citizens,  thus  possessed  of  competence  and  leisure 
were  mostly  in  company,  in  large  common  halls,  where  they 
met  and  conversed  together.  They  passed  little  of  their  timt 
alone;  being  accustomed  to  live  like  bees,  always  together 
always  attentive  to  their  chiefs  and  leaders.  The  love  of 
their  country  and  the  public  good,  was  their  predominant 
passion :  and  all  self-interest  was  lost,  in  the  general  wish  for 
the  welfare  of  the  community.  Pedaratus,  having  missed 
the  honour  of  being  chosen  of  the  three  hundred  who  had  a 
certain  rank 'in  the  city,  converted  his  disappointment  into 
joy,  that  there  tvere  three  hundred  better  men  in  Sparta,  than  he. 

Among  the  maxims  of  their  legislator,  it  was  forbidden 
them  to  make  frequent  war  upon  the  same  enemies.  By  this 
inhibition,  they  were  restrained  from  lasting  and  immoderate 
resentment;  they  were  in  no  danger  of  teaching  their  disci- 
pline to  those  upon  whom  they  made  war ;  and  all  their  alli- 
ances were  thus  more  frequently  renewed. 

When  they  had  broken  and   routed  their  enemies,  they 
never  pursued  them  farther  than  was  necessary  to  make  them- 
selves sure  of  victory.     They  thought  it  sufficiently  glorious 
to  overcome,  and  were  ashamed  of  destroying  an  enemy  that 
yielded  or  fled.     Nor  was  this  without  answering  some  good 
purpose:  an  enemy,  conscious  that  all  who  resisted  were  put 
to  the  sword,  often  fled ;  as  they  were  convinced  that  such  a 
conduct  was  the  surest  means  of  obtaining  safety.     Thus, 
valour  and  generosity  seemed  the  ruling  motives  of  this  new 
institution.    Arms  were  their  only  exercise,  and  their  life  was 
much  less  austere  in  the  camp,  than  in  the  city.     The  Spar- 
tans were  the  only  people  in  the  world,  to  whom  the  time  of 
war  was  a  time  of  ease  and  refreshment :  because  the  severi- 
ty  ot  their  manners  was  then  relaxed,  and  the  men  were  in- 
dulged in  greater  liberties.     With  them,  the  first  and  most 
inviolable  law  of  war,  was,  never  to  turn  their  backs  on  the 
enemy,  however  disproportioned  in  force,  nor  to  deliver  up 
their  arms,  until  they  resigned  them  with  life.     When  the 
poet  Archilochus  came  to  Sparta,  he  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
city,  for  havmg  asserted,  in  one  of  his  poems,  that  it  was  bet- 
ter tor  a  man  to  lose  his  arms,  than  his  life.     Thus  resolved 
upon  conquest  or  death,  they  went  calmly  forward,  with  all 
the  confidence  of  success ;  sure  of  meeting  a  glorious  victo- 
ry,  or,  what  they  vaked  equally,  a  noble  death? 

1  hus,  depending  upon  their  valour  alone  for  safety,  their 
leguiator  forbade  walling  the  city.  It  was  his  maxim,  that 
a  wall  of  men  was  preferable  to  a  wall  of  bricks ;  and  that 


OF  GREECE. 

confined  valour  was  scarcely  preferable  to  cowardice.  Indeed, 
a  city,  in  which  were  thirty  thousand  fighting  men,  stood  in 
little  need  of  walls,  to  protect  it ;  and  we  have  scarcely  an 
instance  in  history,  of  their  sufiering  tlx^mselves  to  be  driven 
to  their  last  retreats. 

War  and  its  honours  was  their  employment  and  ambition 
Their  Helotes,  or  slaves,  tilled  their  grounds,  and  did  all  their 
servile  drudgery.  These  unhappy  men  were,  in  a  manner, 
bound  to  the  soil;  it  was  not  lawful  to  sell  them  to  strangers 
or  to  make  them  free.  If,  at  any  time,  their  increase  became 
inconvenient,  or  created  a  suspicion  in  their  fierce  masters, 
there  was  a  diabolical  cryptia,  or  secret  act,  by  which  they 
were  permitted  to  destroy  them.  From  this  barbarous  se- 
verity, however,  Lycurgus  is  acquitted  by  Plutarch  ;  but,  it  is 
plain,  that  his  institutions  were  not  sufficient  to  restrain  the 
people  from  such  baseness  and  cruelty.  It  was,  by  this 
abominable  act,  allowed,  for  several  companies  of  young  men 
to  go  out  of  the  city,  by  day,  and,  concealing  themselves  in 
the  thickets,  to  rush  out,  in  the  night,  upon  their  slaves,  and 
kill  all  they  could  find  in  their  way.  Thucydides  relates^ 
that  two  thousand  of  these  slaves  disappeared,  at  once,  with- 
out ever  after  being  heard  of. 

It  is  truly  amazing,  how  a  people  like  the  Spartans,  re- 
nowned for  lenity  to  the  conquered,  for  submission  to  their 
superiors,  for  reverence  to  old  age,  and  friendship  for  each 
other,  should  yet  be  so  horribly  brutal,  to  those  beneath  them, 
to  men  who  ought  to  be  considered,  in  every  respect,  as  their 
equals,  as  their  countrymen,  and  only  degraded  by  an  unjust 
usurpation.  Yet  nothing  is  more  certain,  than  their  cruel 
treatment :  they  were  not  only  condemned  to  the  most  servile 
occupations,  but  often  destroyed,  without  reason.  They  were 
frequently  made  drunk,  and  exposed  before  the  children,  in 
order  to  deter  them  from  so  brutal  a  species  of  debauchery. 

Such,  was  the  general  purport  of  the  institutions  of  Lycur- 
gv8 ;  ^hich,  from  their  tendency,  gained  the  esteem  and  ad- 
miration of  all  the  surrounding  nations.  The  Greeks  were 
ever  apt  to  be  dazzled,  rather  with  splendid,  than  useful  vip' 
lues :  and  praised  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  which,  at  best,  were 
calculated  to  make  men  more  warlike  than  happy,  and  to 
substitute  insensibility  for  enjoyment. 

If,  considered  in  a  political  light,  the  city  of  I.acedaemon 
was  but  a  military  garrison,  supported  by  the  labour  of  a  nu- 
merous peasantry,  who  were  slaves.  The  laws,  therefore,  by 
which  they  were  governed,  were  not  much  more  rigorous 
than  are  many  of  the  military  institutions  of  modern  princes. 
The  same  labour,  th«  same  discipline,  the  same  porerty,  ami' 


20 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  <^R££CE. 


9m 


■  I 


the  same  subordination,  are  found  in  many  of  the  garwsoned 
towns  of  Europe,  that  prevailed  for  so  many  centuries  in 
Sparta,  The  only  difference  that  appears  to  me,  between  a 
soldier  of  Lacedaemon,  and  a  soldier  in  garrison  at  Grave- 
imes,  is,  that  the  one  was  permitted  to  marry  at  thirty  and 
the  other  is  obliged  to  continue  single  all  his  life :  the  one 
lives  m  the  midst  of  a  civilized  country,  which  he  is  supposed 
to  protect ;  the  other  lived  in  the  midst  of  a  number  of  civil 
ized  states,  which  he  had  no  inclination  to  offend.  War  is 
equally  the  trade  of  both :  and  a  campaign  is  frequently  a  re- 
laxation from  the  more  rigorous  confinement  of  garrison  duty. 
When  Lycurgus  had  thus  completed  his  military  institu- 
tion, and  when  the  form  of  government  he  had  established, 
seemed  strong  and  vigorous  enough  to  support  itself,  his  next 
care  was  to  give  it  all  the  permanence  in  his  power.  H^ 
Uierefore,  signified  to  the  people,  that  something  still  remain- 
ed  tor  the  completion  of  his  plan,  and  that  he  was  under  the 
necessity  of  going  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Delphos,  for  its  ad- 
vice. In  the  mean  time,  he  persuaded  them  to  take  an  oath 
for  the  strict  observance  of  all  his  laws,  till  his  return,  and 
then  departed,  with  a  full  resolution  of  never  seeing  Sparta 

When  he  had  arrived  at  Delphos,  he  consulted  the  oracle, 
to  know  whether  the  laws  he  had  made,  were  sufficient  to 
render  the  Lacedaemonians  happy :  and,  being  answered,  that 
nothing  was  wanting  to  their  perfection,  he  sent  his  answer 
to   Sparta,  and  then  voluntarily  starved  himself  to  death 
Others  say,  that  he  died  in  Crete,  having  ordered  his  body  to' 
be  burned,  and  his  ashes  lo  be  thrown  into  the  sea.    The  death 
of  this  great  lawgiver,  gave  a  sanction  and  authority  to  his 
laws,  which  his  life  was  unable  to  confer.     The  Spartans  re- 
garded  his  end  as  the  most  glorious  of  all  his  actions,  a  noble 
hnishmg  of  all  his  former  services :  they  considered  them 
selves  as  bound,  by  every  tie  of  gratitude  and  religion,  to  a 
strict  observance  of  all  his  institutions ;  and  the  long  con 
tinuance  of  the  Spartan  government,  is  a  proof  of  their  ner- 
severing  resolution.  * 

The  Lacedaemonians,  thus  constittited,  seemed  desirous 
only  of  an  opportunity  of  displaying  the  Superiority  of  their 
power,  among  the  neighbouring  states,  their  rivals.  The  war 
»>etween  them  and  the  Messenians,  soon  taught  them  the  ad 
vantage*  of  their  military  institutions;  but,  as  I  am  hasten 
ing  to  more  important  events,  I  will  touch  upon  this  as  con- 
cisely as  I  can. 

There  was  a  temple  of  Diana,  coihthoti  to  the  Messenians 
•od  Lacedemonians,  standing  cm  tht  borders  of  both  kin[j* 


drains.  It  was  there,  that  the  Messenians  were  accused  of  of- 
fering /iolence  to  some  Spartan  females ;  and  of  killing  Te- 
leculus,  one  of  the  Spartan  kings,  who  interposed  in  their  de^ 
fence.  The  Messenians^  on  the  other  hand,  denied  the  charge ; 
and  averued  that  these  supposed  females,  were  young  men,  thus 
dressed  up,  with  daggers  under  their  clothes,  and  placed 
tiiere,  by  Telecuius,  with  an  intent  to  surprise  them. 

To  the  mutual  resentment  occasioned  by  this,  another  cause 
«^  animosity  was  soon  afterwards  added.  Polychares,  a  Mes- 
•enian,  who  had  won  the  prize  in  tlie  Olympic  games,  let  out 
jome  cows  to  pasture  to  Euphaenus,  a  Lacedaemonian,  who 
«v^as  to  pay  himself  for  their  keeping  with  a  share  of  the  in- 
crease. Euphaenus  sold  the  cows,  and  pretended  they  were 
stolen  from  him.  Polychares;  sent  his  son,  to  deniand  the 
money :  but  the  Lacedaemonian,  to  aggravate  his  crime,  kill- 
ed the  young  man,  and  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  give  no 
redress.  Polychares,  therefore,  undertook  to  dx>  himself  jus- 
tice, and  killed  all  the  Lacedaemonians  that  came  in  his  way 
Expostulations  passed,  between  both  kingdonis,  till  at  last  th€ 
affair  came  to  a  general  war,  which  was  carried  on  for  many 
yeai-s,  with  doubtful  success. 

In  this  situation,  the  Messenians  sent  to  consult  the  oracle 
of  Delphos;  which  required  the  sacrifice  of  a  virgin,  of  the 
family  of  iEpytus.  Upon  casting  lots  among  the  descendants 
of  this  prince,  the  chance  fell  upon  the  daughter  of  Lycisus : 
but,  her  paternity  being  doubtful,  Aristodemus  offered  his 
daughter,  whom  all  allowed  to  be  his  own.  Her  lover,  how- 
ever, attempted  to  avert  the  blow,  by  asserting  th^  she  was 
pregnant  by  him;  but  her  father  was  so  enr^:ed,  that  he  rip- 
ped  her  up,  with  his  own  hand,  publicly,  to  vindicate  her  in- 

tiocence 

The  enthusiasm  which  this  sacrifice  produced,  served,  foi^ 
a  while,  to  give  the  Messenians  the  advantage;  but,  being  at 
last  overthrown  and  besieged  in  the  city  of  Ithoe,  Aristode- 
mus, finding  all  things  desperate,  slew  himself,  upon  his 
daughter's  grave.  With  him,  fell  the  kingdom  of  Messenia ; 
not  without  a  most  obstinate  resistance,  and  many  a  defeat  of 
the  Spartan  army,  which  they  held  thus  engaged  for  above 

twenty  years.  ...  i_    n^ 

After  a  rigorous  subjection  of  thirty-nine  years,  the  Mes- 
senians, once  more,  made  a  vigorous  struggle  for  freedomj 
headed  by  Aristomenes,  a  young  man  of  great  c^uragb  and 
capacity.  The  success  of  the  first  engagement,  was  doubt- 
ful ;  and  the  Lacedaemonians  being  advised  by  the  oracle  to 
send  for  a  general  from  among  the  Athenians,  this  politic 
«ate  >ent  them  Tyrtaeus,  a  poet  and  schoolmaster,  whose 


22 


THE  HISTORY 


chief  business  was  to  harangue  and  repeat  his  own  verses 
The  Spartans  were  little  pleased  with  their  new  leader ;  but 
their  veneration  for  the  oracle  kept  them  obedient  to  his  com- 
mands. Their  success,  however,  did  not  seem  to  improve 
with  their  duty :  they  suffered  a  defeat  from  Aristomenes ; 
who,  losing  his  shield  in  the  pursuit,  their  total  overthrow 
was  prevented  A  second  and  a  third  defeat  followed  soon 
after;  so  that,  the  Lacedaemonians,  quite  dispirited,  had 
thoughts  of  concluding  a  peace,  upon  any  tei*ms ;  but  Tyrtaeus 
so  inflamed  them  by  his  orations  and  songs  in  praise  of  mili- 
tary glory,  that  they  resolved  upon  another  battle ;  in  which, 
they  were  victorious ;  and,  shortly  afterwards,  Aristomenes 
was  taken  prisoner,  in  a  skirmish,  with  fifty  of  his  followers. 

The  adventures  of  this  hero  deserve  our  notice.  Being 
carried  prisoner  to  Sparta,  he  was  thrown  into  a  deep  dungeon, 
which  had  been  used  for  the  execution  of  malefactors,  and  his 
fifty  soldiers  with  him.  They  were  all  killed,  by  the  fall,  ex- 
cept Aristomenes ;  -who,  finding  a  wild  beast  at  the  bottom, 
preying  upon  a  carcass,  he  secured  the  animal's  mouth,  and 
continued  to  hold  by  the  tail,  until  the  beast  made  directly  to 
its  hole.  There,  finding  the  issue  too  narrow,  he  was  obliged 
to  let  go  his  hold ;  but,  following  the  track  with  his  eye,  he 
perceived  a  glimmering  from  above,  and  at  length  wrought 
his  way  out. 

After  this  extraordinary  escape,  he  repaired  immediately 
to  his  troops ;  and,  at  their  head,  made  a  successful  sally  by 
night,  against  the  Corinthian  forces.  Nevertheless,  he  was 
once  more,  soon  afterwards,  taken  by  some  Cretans ;  but  his 
keepers  being  made  drunk,  he  stabbed  them  with  their  own 
daggers,  and  returned  to  his  forces. 

But  his  single  valour  was  not  sufficient  to  avert  the  ruin  of 
his  country;  although,  with  his  own  single  prowess,  he  had 
thrice  earned  the  Hecatomphonia,  a  sacrifice  due  to  those 
who  had  killed  one  hundred  of  the  enemy,  hand  to  hand,  in 
battle.  The  body  of  his  forces  being  small,  and  fatigued 
with  continual  duty,  the  city  of  Eira,  which  he  defended,  was 
taken ;  and  the  Messenians  were  obliged  to  take  refuge  with 
Anaxilas,  a  prince  of  Sicily. 

As  for  Tyrtaeus,  the  Lacedaemonians  made  him  free  .  ,  . 
of  their  city,  which  was  the  highest  honour  they  had  «*„vj[* 
in  their  power  to  bestow.  By  the  accession  of  the  *^'*'*^' 
Messenian  country  to  the  territory  of  Sparta,  this  state  be- 
came one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  Greece,  and  was  sec- 
ond only  to  Athens,  which  state  it  always  considered  with  an 
eye  of  jealousy. 


OF  GREECE. 


CHAPTER  HL 


89 


Of  the  CrGvemment  of  Athens^  the  Laws  of  Solon,  and  the  History 
of  the  Republic,  from  the  time  of  Solon,  to  the  commencement  of 
the  Persian  war. 

We  now  return  to  Athens.  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  thi» 
state,  having  devoted  himself  for  the  good  of  his  country,  a 
magistrate,  under  the  title  of  archon,  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed him.  The  first  that  bore  this  office,  was  Medon,  the  son 
of  the  late  king;  who,  being  opposed  by  his  brother  Nileus, 
was  preferred  by  the  oracle,  and  accordingly  invested  with 
his  new  dignity.  This  magistracy  was  at  first  for  life ;  it  was 
soon  reducctl  to  a  period  of  ten  years,  and  at  last  became  an- 
nual ;  and  in  this  state  it  continued  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years. 

During  this  iliac tive  government,  little  offers,  to  adorn  the 
page  of  history ;  the  spirit  of  extensive  dominion  had  not  as 
yet  entered  into  Greece,  and  the  citizens  were  too  much  em- 
ployed in  their  private  intrigues,  to  attend  to  foreign  concerns. 
Athens,  therefore,  continued  a  long  time  incapable  of  enlarg 
ing  her  power;  content  M'ith  safety,  amidst  the  contending 
interests  of  aspiring  potentates  and  factious  citizens. 

A  desire  of  being  governed  by  written  laws,  at  last  made 
A   M    ^^^y  ^^^  ^  ^^^  change  in  government.     For  more  than 

*  *  a  century,  they  had  seen  the  good  effects  of  laws  in  th* 
"^  '  regulation  of  the  Spartan  commonwealth ;  and,  as  the/ 
were  a  more  enlightened  people,  they  expected  greater  ad- 
vantages from  a  new  institution.  In  the  choice,  therefore,  of 
a  legislator,  they  pitched  upon  Draco ;  a  man  of  acknowledged 
wisdom  and  unshaken  integrity;  but  rigid,  even  beyond  hu 
man  sufferance. 

It  does  not  appear,  that  any  state  of  Greece  was  jwssessed 
of  written  laws,  before  his  time.  However,  he  was  not  afraid 
to  enact  the  most  severe  laws;  which  laid  the  same  penalties 
on  the  most  atrocious,  and  the  most  trifling  offences.  These 
laws,  which  punished  all  crimes  with  death,  and  which  were 
said  not  to  be  written  with  ink,  but  with  blood,  were  too  cruel, 
fo  be  duly  and  justly  administered.  Sentiments  of  humanity 
in  the  judges,  compassion  for  the  accused,  when  his  fault  was 
not  equal  to  his  suffering,  the  unwillingness  of  witnesses  to 
exact  too  cruel  an  atonement,  their  fears  also  of  the  resent- 
ment of  the  people ;  all  these,  conspired  to  render  the  laws 
obsolete,  before  they  couid  well  be  put  into  execution.  Thus, 
the  new  laws  counteracted  their  own  purpose ;  and  their  ex- 
cessive rigour  paved  the  way  for  the  most  dangerous  impunity. 


JB4 


THE  HISTORIC 


It  was  in  this  distressful  state  of  the  commonwealth,  thai 
Solon  was  applied  to,  for  his  advice  and  assistance,  as  th< 
wisest  and  justest  man  of  all  Athens.  His  great  learning  hud 
acquired  him  the  reputation  of  being  the  first  of  the  seven 
wise  men  of  Greece  ;  and  his  known  humanity  procured  him 
the  love  and  veneration  of  every  rank  among  his  fellow-citizens. 

Solon  was  a  native  of  Salamis,  an  island  dependent  on 
Athens ;  but  which  had  revolted,  to  put  itself  under  the  power 
of  the  Megareans.  In  attempting  to  recover  this  island,  the 
Athenians  had  spent  much  blood  and  treasure ;  until,  at  last, 
wearied  out  with  such  ill-success,  a  law  was  made,  rendering 
it  capital  ever  to  advise  the  recovery  of  their  lost  possession. 
Solon,  however,  undertook  to  persuade  them  to  another  trial ; 
and,  feigning  himself  mad,  ran  about  the  streets,  using  the 
most  violent  gestures  and  language ;  but  the  purport  of  all 
was,  upbraiding  the  Athenians  for  their  remissness  and  ef- 
feminacy, in  giving  up  their  conquests  in  despair. 

lie  acted  his  part  so  well,  by  the  oddity  of  his  manner,  and 
the  strength  of  his  reasoning,  that  the  people  resolved  upon 
anotlicr  expedition  against  Salamis ;  and,  by  a  stratagem  of 
liis  contrivance,  in  which  he  introduced  several  young  men 
upon  tiue  island,  in  women's  clothes,  the  place  was  surprised, 
and  added  to  the  dominion  of  Athens. 

But  this  was  not  the  only  occasion  on  which  he  exhibited 
superior  address  and  wisdom.  At  a  time  when  Greece  had 
carried  the  arts  of  eloquence,  poetry,  and  government,  higher 
than  they  had  yet  been  seen  among  mankind,  Solon  was  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  foremost  in  each  perfection.  The  sages 
of  Greece,  whose  fame  is  still  undiminished,  acknowledged 
his  merit,  and  adopted  him  as  their  associate. 

The  correspondence  between  these  wise  men,  was  at  onre 
instructive,  friendly,  and  sincere.  They  were  seven  in  num- 
ber ;— Solon  of  Athens,  Thales  the  Milesian,  Chilo  of  Lace- 
daemon,  Pittacus  of  Mitylene,  Periander  of  Corinth,  Bias  and 
Cleobolus,  whose  birth  places  arc  not  ascertained.  Those 
sages  often  visited  each  other ;  and  their  conversations  gene- 
rally turned  upon  the  methods  of  instituting  the  best  form  of 
govemment,  or  the  arts  of  private  happiness. 

One  day,  when  Solon  went  to  Miletos,  to  see  Thales,  the 
first  thing  he  said  was  to  express  his  surprise,  that  Thales 
had  never  desired  to  marry,  or  have  children.  Thales  made 
him  no  answer,  then,  but,  a  few  days  afterwards,  he  contrived 
that  a  stranger,  supposed  to  have  just  arrived  from  Athens 
should  join  their  company.  Solon,  hearing  whence  the  stran- 
ger came,  was  inquisitive  after  the  news  of  his  own  city ;  bul 
was  onlv  informed  tliat  a  young  man  died  there,  for  whom 


OF  GREBCE. 


25 


the  whole  place  was  in  the  greatest  affliction,  as  he  was  re- 
puted the  most  promising  youth  in  all  Athens.  "  Alas  l*' 
cried  Solon,  "  how  much  is  the  poor  father  of  the  youth  to  hf 
pitied  I  Pray,  what  was  his  name  ?"  "  I  heard  the  name,"  re 
plied  the  stranger,  who  was  instructed  for  the  occasion,  "  bui 
I  have  forgot  it :  I  only  remember  that  all  people  talked 
much  of  his  wisdom  and  justice." 

Every  answer  afforded  new  matter  of  trouble  and  terror 
to  the  inquisitive  father ;  and  he  had  just  strength  enough  to 
ask,  "  if  the  youth  was  not  tht^.  son  of  Solon."  "  The  very 
same,"  replied  the  stranger.  A  t  which  words,  Solon  showed 
all  the  marks  of  the  most  inconsolable  distress.  This  was 
the  opportunity  which  Thales  Avanted ;  who  took  him  by  the 
hand, and  said  to  him,  with  a  smile;  "  Comfort  yourself,  my 
friend ;  all  that  has  been  told  you  is  mere  fiction,  but  may 
serve  as  a  very  proper  answer  to  your  question,  why  I  never 
thought  proper  to  marry." 

One  day,  at  the  court  of  Periander  of  Corinth,  a  question 
was  proposed ;  which  was  the  most  perfect  popular  govern- 
ment ?  "  That,"  said  Bias,  "  where  the  law  has  no  superior." 
*'  That,"  said  Thales,  "  where  the  inhabitants  are  neither  too 
rich  nor  too  poor."  "  That,"  said  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian, 
"where  virtue  is  honoured,  and  vice  always  detested." 
"  That,"  said  Cleobolus,  "  where  the  citizens  fear  blame,  moi-e 
than  punishment."  "  That,"  said  Chilo, "  where  the  laws  are 
more  regarded  than  the  orators."  Bul  Solon's  opinion 
seems  to  have  the  greatest  weight,  who  said,  "  where  an  inju- 
ry done  to  the  meanest  subject,  is  an  insult  to  the  whole  con- 
stitution." 

Upon  a  certain  occasion,  when  Solon  was  conversing  with 
Anacharsis,  the  Scythian  philosopher,  about  his  intended  re- 
formation in  the  state  ;  "  Alas !"  cried  the  Scythian,  "  all  your 
laws  will  be  found  to  resemble  spiders'  webs :  the  weak  and 
small  flies  will  be  caught  and  entangled,  but  the  great  and  pow 
erful  will  always  have  strength  enough  to  break  through." 

Solon's  interview  with  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  is  still  more 
celebrated.  This  monarch,  who  was  reputed  the  richest  of 
all  Asia  Minor,  was  willing  to  make  an  ostentatious  display 
of  his  wealth,  before  the  Greek  philosopher ;  and,  after  show- 
ing him  immense  heaps  of  treasure,  and  the  greatest  variety 
of  other  ornaments,  he  demanded  Avhether  he  did  not  think 
the  possessor  the  most  happy  of  all  mankind.  "  No,"  replieu 
Solon,  "I  know  one  man  more  happy,  a  poor  peasant  in 
Greece,  who  is  neither  in  affluence  or  poverty,  has  but  a  few 
wants,  and  has  learned  to  supply  them  by  his  laboui\" 

This  answer  was  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the  vain  men- 


26 


THE  HISTORY 


I 


arch,  who,  by  his  question,  only  hoped  for  a  reply  that  would 
lend  to  flatter  his  pride.  Willing,  therefore,  to  extort  one 
still  more  favourable,  he  asked,  "  whether,  at  least,  he  did  not 
think  him  happy  ?"  "  Alas  !"  cried  Solon,  "  what  man  can  be 
pronounced  happy,  before  he  dies  ?" 

The  integrity  and  wisdom  of  Solon's  replies,  appeared  in 
the  event.  The  kingdom  of  Lydia  was  invaded  by  Cyrus,  the 
empire  destroyed,  and  Croesus  himself  taken  prisoner.  When 
he  was  led  out  to  execution,  according  to  the  barbarous  man- 
ners of  the  times,  he  then,  too  late,  recollected  the  maxims  of 
Solon ;  aiid  could  not  help  crying  out,  when  on  the  scaffold 
upon  Solon's  name :  Cyrus,  hearing  him  repeat  the  name, 
with  great  earnestness,  was  desirous  of  knowing  the  reason; 
and,  being  informed,  by  Croesus,  of  that  philosopher's  re- 
markable observation,  he  began  to  fear  for  himseli ;  pardon- 
ed CrcEsus,  and  took  him,  for  the  future,  into  confidence  and 
friendship.  Thus,  Solon  had  the  merit  of  saving  one  king's 
life,  and  of  reforming  another. 

Such,  was  the  man,  to  whom  the  Athenians  applied  for  as- 
sistance, in  reforming  the  severity  of  their  government ;  and 
instituting  a  just  body  of  laws.  Athens  was,  at  this  time,  di- 
vided into  as  many  factions,  as  there  were  different  sorts  of 
inhabitants  in  Attica.  Those  that  lived  on  the  mountains, 
were  fond  of  exact  equality ;  those  that  lived  in  the  low  coun- 
try, were  for  the  dominion  of  a  few ;  and  those  that  dwelt  on 
the  sea  coasts,  and  were  consequently  addicted  to  commerce, 
were  for  keeping  those  parties  so  exactly  balanced,  as  to  per- 
mit neither  to  prevail.  But,  besides  these,  there  was  a  fourth 
party,  by  much  the  most  numerous,  consisting  wholly  of  the 
poor;  who  were  grievously  harassed  and  oppressed  by  the 
rich ;  and  loaded  with  debts,  which  they  were  not  able  to  dis- 
charge. This  unhappy  party,  which,  when  they  know  their 
own  strength,  must  ever  prevail,  were  now  determined  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  their  oppressors ;  and  to  choose  them- 
selves a  chief,  who  should  make  a  reformation  in  govern 
ment,  by  making  a  new  division  of  lands. 

As  Solon  had  never  sided  with  either,  he  was  regarded  as 
the  refuge  of  all :  the  rich  liking  him,  because  he  was  rich : 
the  poor,  because  he  was  honest.  Though  he  was,  at  first, 
unwilling  to  undertake  so  dangerous  an  employment,  he,  at 
last,  sufiiered  himself  tolDe  chosen  archon,  and  to  be  constitut- 
ed   supreme  legislator,  with  the  unanimous  consent  of  all 

This  was  a  situation,  in  which  nothing  could  be  added  to 
his  power ;  yet  many  of  the  citizens  advised  him  to  make  him- 
self king :  but  he  had  too  much  wisdom,  to  seek  after  a  name, 
which  would  render  him  obnoxious  to  many  of  his  fellow  citi 


OF  GREECE.  f 

lens,  while  he  was,  in  fact,  possessed  of  more  than  regal  au- 
thority. A  tyranny^  he  would  say,  resembles  a  fair  garden  /  1/ 
is  a  beautiful  spot  while  tee  are  within  ;  but  it  wants  a  way  to  gat 

out  at. 

Rejecting,  therefore,  their  desire  for  royalty,  he  resolved 
upon  settling  a  form  of  government,  that  should  be  founded  on 
the  basis  of  just  and  reasonable  liberty.  Not  venturing  to  med- 
dle with  certain  disorders  which  he  looked  upon  as  incurable, 
he  undertook  to  bruig  about  no  other  alterations  than  such  as 
were  apparently  reasonable  to  the  meanest  capacity.  It  was 
his  aim,  to  give  the  Athenians,  not  the  best  possible  consti- 
tution ;  but  the  very  best  they  were  capable  of  receiving. 

His  first  attempt  was,  therefore,  in  favour  of  the  poor; 
whose  debts  he  abolished,  at  once,  by  an  express  law  of  insol- 
vency. But,  to  do  this,  with  the  least  injury  he  could  to  the 
creditor,  he  raised  the  value  of  money,  in  a  moderate  propor- 
tion, by  which  he  nominally  increased  their  riches.  But  his 
management,  on  this  occasion,  had  nearly  produced  very  dan- 
gerous consequences ;  for  some  of  his  friends,  to  whom  the 
scheme  had  been  pi-eviously  communicated,  took  up  vast 
sums  of  money  while  it  was  low,  in  order  to  be  possessed  of 
the  difference  when  it  became  of  greater  value.  Solon  him 
self  was  suspected  of  being  concerned  m  this  fraud :  but,  to 
wipe  off  all  suspicion,  he  remitted  his  debtors  five,  or  as 
others  say,  fifteen  talents ;  and  thus  regained  the  confidence 
of  the  people. 

His  next  step,  was  to  repeal  all  the  laws  enacted  by  Draco, 
except  those  against  muvder.  He  then  proceeded  to  the  regu- 
lation of  offices,  employments,  and  magistracies;  all  which, 
he  left  in  the  hands  of  the  rich.  He  distributed  the  rich  citi 
zens  into  three  classes ;  ranging  them  according  to  their  in 
comes.  Those  that  were  found  to  have  five  hundred  mea 
sures  yearly,  as  well  in  corn  as  in  liquids,  were  placed  in  the 
first  rank ;  those  that  had  three  hundred,  were  placed  in  the 
second ;  and  those  that  had  but  two  hundred,  made  up  the 
third.  All  the  rest  of  the  citizens,  whose  income  fell  short 
of  two  hundred  measures,  were  comprised  in  a  fourth  and 
last  class ;  and  were  considered  as  unqualified  for  any  employ- 
ment whatever.  But,  to  compensate  for  this  exclusion,  he 
gave  every  private  citizen  a  privilege  of  voting  in  the  great 
assembly  of  the  whole  body  of  the  state.  This,  indeed,  at 
first,  might  appear  a  concession  of  small  importance:  but, it 
wa',  soon  found  to  contain  very  solid  advantages :  for,  by  the 
laws  Of'  Athens,  it  was  permitted,  after  the  determination  of 

the  magistrates,  to  appeal  to  the  general  assembly  of  the  pco- 

c  2 


! 


88 


THE  HISTORY 


pic;  and  thus,  in  time,  all  causes  of  weight   and  moment 
ca'He  before  them. 

in  some  measure,  to  counteract  the  influence  of  a  popular  , 
assembly,  he  gave  greater  weight  to  the  court  of  Areopagus ; 
and  also  instituted  another  council,consistingof  four  hundred, 
Tne  Areopagus,  so  called  from  the  place  where  the  court  was 
held,  had  been  established  some  centuries  before,  but  Solon 
restored  and  augmented  its  authority.  To  this  court,  was 
committed  the  care  of  causing  the  laws  to  be  observed  and 
put  in  execution.  Before  his  time,  the  citizens  of  the  great 
est  probity  and  justice,  were  made  judges  of  that  tribunal. 

Solon  was  the  first  who  thought  it  convenient  that  none 
should  be  honoured  with  that  dignity  but  such  as  had  passed 
through  the  office  of  archon.  Nothing  was  so  august  as  this 
court ;  and  its  reputation  for  judgment  and  integrity  became 
so  very  great,  that  the  Romans,  sometimes,  referred  causes, 
which  were  too  intricate  for  their  own  decision,  to  the  deter- 
mination of  this  tribunal.  Nothing  was  regarded,  here,  but 
truth  :  that  no  external  objects  might  prevent  justice,  the  tri- 
bunal was  held  in  darkness ;  and  the  advocates  were  prohi- 
bited all  attempts  to  work  upon  the  passions  of  the  judges 
Superior  to  this,  Solon  instituted  the  great  council  of  foui 
hundred  ;  who  were  to  judge  upon  appeals  from  the  Areopa- 
gus; and  maturely  to  examine  every  question,  before  it  came 
to  be  debated  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  people. 

Such,  was  the  reformation  in  the  general  institutions,  foi 
the  good  of  the  state.  His  particular  laws,  for  dis{>ensin^ 
justice,  were  more  numerous.  In  the  first  place,  all  persons 
who,  in  public  dissentions  and  differences,  espoused  neithei 
party,  but  continued  to  act  with  ablameable  neutrality,  were 
declared  infamous,  condemned  to  perpetual  punishment,  and 
to  have  all  their  estates  confiscated. 

Nothing  could  moio  induce  mankind  fo  a  spirit  of  patriot 
ism,  than  this  celebrated  law.  A  mind,  thus  obliged  to  takf 
part  in  public  concerns,  loarns,  from  habit,  to  make  those  con 
rerns  its  principal  care,  and  self-interest  (,uickly  sinks  before 
thtm.  By  this  method  of  accustoming  the  minds  of  the  pea 
pic  to  look  upon  that  man  as  an  enemy,  that  should  appeal 
indifferent  and  unconcerned  in  the  misfortunes  of  the  public 
he  provided  the  state  with  a  quick  and  general  resource,  iB 
every  dangerous  emergency. 

He  next  permitted  every  particular  p>erson  to  espouse  tlie 
quarrel  of  any  one,  that  was  injured  or  insulted.  By  this 
means,  every  person  in  the  state  became  the  enemy  of  him 
who  did  wrong;  and  the  turbulent  were  thus  overpowered 
by  the  number  of  their  opponents. 


OF  GREECE. 


29 


He  abolished  the  custom  of  giving  portions  in  marria|;e, 
with  young  women;  unless  they  were  only  daughters.  'J'he 
bride  was  to  carry  no  other  fortune  to  her  husband,  than  three 
suits  of  clothes,  and  some  household  goods  of  little  value.  It 
was  his  aim,  to  prevent  making  matrimony  a  traffic ;  he  con- 
sidered it  as  an  honourable  connexion,  calculated  for  the  mu- 
tual happiness  of  both  parties,  and  the  general  advantages  of 

the  state. 

Before  this  lawgiver's  time,  the  Athenians  were  not  allow- 
ed to  make  their  wills ;  but  the  wealth  of  the  deceased,  natu- 
rally, and  of  course,  devolved  upon  his  children.  Solon  allowed 
every  one  that  was  childless,  to  dispose  of  his  whole  estate,  as 
he  thought  fit;  preferring,  by  that  means,  friendship  to  kin- 
dred, and  choice  to  necessity  and  constraint.  From  this  in- 
stitution, the  bond  between  the  parents  and  children  becanie 
more  solid  and  firm :  it  confirmed  the  just  authority  of  the 
one,  and  increased  the  necessary  dependence  of  the  other. 

He  made  a  regulation  to  lessen  the  rewards  to  the  victors 
at  the  Olympic  and  Isthmian  games,  lie  considered  it  as  un- 
just, that  a  set  of  idle  people,  generally  useless,  often  danger- 
ous to  the  state,  should  be  allotted  those  rewards,  which  should 
go  to  the  deserving.  He  wished  to  see  those  enioluments 
enjoyed  by  the  widows  and  families  of  such  as  fell  in  the  ser- 
vice of  their  country ;  and  to  make  the  stipend  of  the  state 
Honourable,  by  being  conferred  only  upon  the  brave. 

To  encourage  industry,  the  Areopagus  was  charged  with 
the  care  of  examining  into  every  man's  method  of  living ; 
and  of  chastising  all  who  led  an  idle  life.  The  unemployed 
were  considered  as  a  set  of  dangerous  and  turbulent  spirits, 
eager  after  innovation,  and  hoping  to  amend  their  fortunes 
from  the  plunder  of  the  state.  To  discountenance  all  idleness, 
therefore,  a  son  was  not  obliged  to  support  his  father  in  old 
age  or  necessity,  if  the  latter  had  neglected  giving  him  some 
trade  or  occupation.  Illegitimate  children  were  also  exempt- 
ed from  the  same  duty,  as  they  owed  little  to  their  parents, 
except  an  indelible  reproach. 

It  was  forbidden  to  give  ill  language  in  public;  the  magis- 
trates, who  were  not  eligible  till  thirty,  were  to  be  particulai- 
1  r  circumspect  in  their  behaviour ;  and  it  was  even  death  for 
an  archon  to  be  taken  drunk.  It  is  observable,  that  he  made 
no  law  against  parricide ;  supposing  it  a  crime  that  could 
never  exist  in  any  community. 

These  were  the  chief  institutions  of  this  celebrated  lawgiver; 
and,  although  neitner  so  striking,  nor  yet  so  well  authorized, 
as  those  of  Lycurgus,  they  did  not  fail  to  operate  for  several 
nuccceding  ages ;  and  seemed  to  gather  strength  by  observance 


30 


THE  HISTORY 


After  he  had  framed  these  institutes,  his  next  care  iras  to 
i^ive  them  such  notoriety,  that  none  could  plead  ignorance. 
To  this  end,  transcripts  of  them  were  hung  up  in  the  city,  for 
every  one  to  peruse ;  while  a  set  of  magistrates,  named  thes- 
mothetae,  were  appointed,  carefully  to  revise  them  ;  and  dis 
tinctly  repeat  them  once  a  year.  Then,  in  order  to  perpetu- 
ate the  statutes,  he  engaged  the  people,  by  a  public  oath,  to 
t>bserve  them  religiously,  at  least  for  the  term  of  a  hundred 
years  :  and,  having  thus  completed  the  task  assigned  him,  he 
withdrew  from  the  city,  to  avoid  the  importunity  of  some, 
and  the  captious  petulance  of  others.  For,  as  he  well  knew, 
it  was  hard  if  not  impossible,  to  please  all. 

Solon,  being  thus  employed  on  his  travels,  in  visiting  Egypt, 
Lydia,  and  several  other  countries,  left  Athens  to  become 
habituated  to  his  new  institutions ;  and  try,  by  experience,  the 
wisdom  of  their  reformation.  But  it  was  not  easy  for  a  city, 
long  torn  by  civil  dissensions,  to  yield  implicit  obedience  to 
any  laws,  how  wisely  soever  framed.  Their  former  animosi 
ties  began  to  revive,  when  the  authority  was  removed,  which 
alone  could  hold  them  in  subjection.  The  factions  of  the 
state  were  headed  by  three  different  leaders,  who  inflamed 
the  animosity  of  the  people  against  each  other ;  hoping,  by 
the  subversion  of  all  order,  to  indulge  their  own  private  hopes 
of  aspiring.  A  person  named  Lycurgus,  was  at  the  head  of 
the  people  who  inhabited  the  low  country;  Pisistratus declar- 
ed for  those  who  lived  in  the  mountains ;  and  Megacles  was 
the  leader  of  the  inhabitants  upon  the  sea  coast. 

Of  these,  Pisistratus  was  the  most  powerful.  He  was  a 
well  bred  man ;  of  a  gentle  and  insinuating  behaviour ;  ready 
to  succour  and  assist  the  poor,  whose  cause  he  pretended  to 
espouse.  He  was  wise,  and  moderate  to  his  enemies ;  and 
was  every  way  virtuous,  except  in  his  inordinate  ambition, 
and  being  a  most  artful  and  accomplished  dissembler.  His 
ambition  gave  the  appearance  of  possessing  qualities  which 
he  really  wanted :  he  seemed  the  most  zealous  champion  for 
equality  among  the  citizens,  while  he  was  accually  meditating 
a  change.  The  giddy  multitude,  caught  by  these  appearances, 
were  zealous  in  seconding  his  views ;  and,  without  examining 
his  motives,  were  driving  headlong  to  tyranny  and  destruction. 

It  was  just  at  the  eve  of  success,  and  upon  the  point  of  be- 
ing indulged  in  its  utmost  ambition,  that  Pisistratus  had  the 
mortification  of  seeing  Solon  return,  after  an  absence  of  ten 
years;  apprised  of  his  designs,  and  willing  to  subvert  his 
schemes.  Sensible,  therefore,  of  his  danger,  and  conscious 
of  the  penetration  of  this  great  lawgiver,  the  aspiring  dema- 
gogue used  all  his  artifice  to  conceal  his  real  designs ;  andj 


OP  GREECE. 


31 


r. 


ii 


while  he  flattered  him  in  public,  used  every  endeavour  to 
bring  over  the  people  to  second  his  own  interests. 

Solon,  at  first,  endeavoured  to  oppose  art  to  his  cunning; 
and  to  foil  him  at  his  own  weapons.  He  praised  him  in  his 
turn ;  and  was  heard  to  declare,  what  might  have  l>een  true ; 
that,  excepting  the  immoderate  ambition  of  Pisistratus,  he 
knew  no  man  of  greater  or  more  exalted  virtues.  Still,  how- 
ever, he  set  himself  to  counteract  his  projects ;  and  to  defeat 
his  designs,  before  they  were  ripe  for  execution. 

But,  in  a  vicious  commonwealth,  no  assiduity  can  warn,  no 
wisdom  protect.  Pisistratus  still  urged  his  schemes,  with 
unabating  ardour ;  and  every  day  made  new  proselytes,  by  his 
professions  and  his  liberalities.  At  length,  finding  his  schemes 
ripe  for  open  action,  he  gave  himself  several  wounds ;  and, 
in  that  condition,  with  his  body  all  bloody,  he  caused  himself 
to  be  carried,  in  his  chariot,  to  the  market-place ;  where,  by 
his  complaints  and  eloquence,  he  so  inflamed  the  populace, 
that  they  considered  him  as  the  victim  of  their  cause ;  and 
as  suffering  such  cruel  treatment  in  their  defence.  An  as- 
sembly of  the  people  was,  therefore,  immediately  convened ; 
from  whom,  he  demanded  a  guard  of  fifty  persons,  for  his 

future  security. 

It  was  in  vain,  that  Solon  used  all  his  authority  and  elo 
quence  to  oppose  so  dangerous  a  request.     He  considered  his 
sufferings  as  merely  counterfeited.     He   compared  him  to 
Ulysses,  in  Homer,  who  cut  himself,  with  similar  designs . 
but  he  alleged,  that  he  did  not  act  the  part  right;  for  the  de- 
sign  of  Ulysses  was  to  deceive  his  enemies ;  but  that  of  Pisis 
tratus  was  levelled  against  his  friends  and  supporters.     He 
upbraided  the  people  with  their  stupidity ;  telling  them,  that, 
for  his  own  part,  he  had  sense  enough  to  see  through  his  de 
sign,  but  they  only  had  strength  enough  to  oppose  it. 

His  exhortations,  however,  were  vain :  the  party  of  Pisis- 
tratus prevailed ;  and  a  guard  of  fifty  men  was  appointed  to 
attend  him.  This  was  all  he  aimed  at;  for  now,  having  the 
protection  of  so  many  creatures  of  his  own,  nothing  remained, 
but  insensibly  to  increase  their  number.  Thus,  every  day, 
his  hirelings  were  seen  to  augment,  while  the  silent  fear  of 
the  citizens  increased,  in  equal  proportion.  But  it  was  now 
too  late ;  for,  having  raised  a  number  to  put  him  beyond  the 
danger  of  a  repulse,  he  at  length  seized  upon  the  citadel, 
while  none  Avas  left  who  had  courage  or  conduct  to  oppose. 

In  this  general  consternation,  the  result  of  folly  on  the  one 
hand,  and  treachery  on  the  other,  the  whole  city  was  one  scene 
of  tumult  and  disorder ;  some  flying,  others  only  complaJn* 
Vnj?,  otherr  preparing  for  slavery,  with  patient  submission. 


I! 


n 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


3S 


Solon  was  the  only  man,  who,  without  fear  or  shrinking, 
deplored  the  folly  of  the  times,  and  reproached  the  Atheni. 
ans  with  their  cowardice  and  treachery.  "  You  might,"  said 
he,  "  with  ease,  have  crushed  the  tyrant  in  the  bud :  but  no- 
thing now  remains,  but  to  pluck  him  up  by  the  roots."  A*'- 
for  himself,  he  had,  at  least,  the  satisfaction  of  havmg  dis 
charged  his  duty  to  his  country  and  the  laws ;  and,  as  for  the 
rest,  he  had  nothing  to  fear;  and,  now,  upon  the  destruction 
of  his  country,  his  only  confidence  was  in  his  great  age,  which 
gave  him  hopes  of  not  being  a  long  survivor.  In  fact,  he  did 
not  survive  the  liberty  of  his  country  above  two  years :  he 
died  at  Cyprus,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  lamented  and 
admired,  by  every  state  of  Greece. 

Besides  his  skill  in  legislation,  Solon  was  remarkable  for 
several  other  shining  qualifications.  He  understood  eloquence, 
•  in  so  high  a  degree,  that,  from  him,  Cicero  dates  the  origin 
of  eloquence  in  Athens.  He  was  successful  also  in  poetry; 
and  Plato  asserts,  that  it  was  only  for  want  of  due  application, 
that  he  did  not  dispute  the  prize  with  Homer  himself. 

The  death  of  Solon  served  to  involve  Athens  in  new  trou- 
bles and  commotions.  Lycurgus  and  Megacles,  the  leaders 
of  the  two  opposite  factions,  uniting,  drove  Pisistratus  out  of 
the  city;  but  he  was  soon  after  recalled  by  Megacles,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 

New  disturbances  arose.  Pisistratus  was  twice  deposed, 
and  twice  found  means  to  reinstate  himself;  for  he  had  art  to 
acquire  power,  and  moderation  to  maintain  it.  The  mild- 
ness of  his  government,  and  his  implicit  submission  to  the 
laws,  made  the  people  forget  the  means  by  which  he  acquired 
his  power;  and,  caught  by  his  lenity,  they  overlooked  his 
usurpation.  His  gardens  and  pleasure  grounds  were  free  to 
■  all  the  citizens ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
opened  a  public  library  at  Athens. 

Cicero  is  of  opinion,  that  Pisistratus  first  made  the  Athc- 
nians  acquainted  with  the  books  of  Homer ;  that  he  disposed 
them  in  the  order  in  which  they  now  remain,  and  first  caused 
them  to  be  read,  at  the  feast  called  Panathenaea. 

Being  accused  of  murder,  though  it  was  in  the  time  of  his 
tyranny,  he  went,  in  person,  to  plead  his  cause,  before  the  Areo- 
pagus ;  where  his  accuser  would  not  venture  to  appear.  He 
was  master  of  many  excellent  qualities ;  and  perverted  them 
no  farther,  than  as  they  stood  in  competition  with  empire 
Nothing  could  be  objected  to  him,  except  his  having  greater 
power  than  the  laws  :  but,  by  not  exerting  that  power,  he  al- 
most  reconciled  the  citizens  to  royalty.  Upon  these  accounts, 
he  was  deservedly  opposed  to  usurpers  of  fewer  virtues  •  and 


I 


there  seemed  such  a  resemblance  between  him  and  a  more 
successful  invader  of  his  country's  freedom,  that  Julius  Caesar 
was  called  the  Pisistratus  of  Rome. 

Pisistratus,  dying  in  tranquillity,  transmitted  the  sovereign 
power  to  his  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus.  A  passion  for 
learning  and  its  professors,  had,  for  some  time,  prevailed  in 
Athens ;  and  this  city,  which  had  already  far  outgone  all  its 
contemporsj-ies,  in  all  the  arts  of  refinement,  seemed  id  sub- 
mit tamely  to  kings,  who  made  learning  their  pride  and  their  - 
profession.  Anacreon,  Simonides,  and  others,  were  invited 
to  their  courts,  and  richly  rewarded.  Schools  were  institu 
ted,  for  the  improvement  of  youth  in  the  learned  professions; 
and  Mercuries  were  set  up,  in  all  the  highways,  with  moral 
sentences  written  upon  them,  for  the  instruction  of  the  lowest 
vulgar.  Their  reign,  however,  lasted  but  eighteen  years,  and 
ended  upon  the  following  occasion. 

Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  both  citizens  of  Athens,  had 
contracted  a  very  strict  friendship  for  each  other ;  and  re- 
solved to  revenge  the  injuries  which  should  be  committed 
against  either,  with  common  resentment.  Hipparchus  being 
naturally  amorous,  seduced  the  sister  of  Harmodius  ;  and  af- 
terwards published  her  shame,  as  she  was  about  to  walk  in 
one  of  the  sacred  processions  ;  alleging,  that  she  was  not  in 
a  condition  to  assist  at  the  ceremony. 

Such  a  complicated  indignity  naturally  excited  the  resent 
ment  of  the  two  friends ;  who  formed  a  fixed  resolution  of  de- 
stroying the  tyrants,  or  falling  in  the  attempt.  Willing,  how 
ever,  to  wait  the  most  favourable  opportunity,  they  deferred 
their  purpose  to  the  feast  of  the  Panathanea,  in  which  the 
ceremony  required  that  all  the  citizens  should  attend  in  ar- 
mour. 

For  their  greater  security,  they  admitted  only  a  small  num- 
ber of  their  friends  into  the  secret  of  their  design ;  conceiv- 
ing, that,  upon  the  first  commotion,  they  should  not  want  for 
abettors.  Thus  resolved,  the  day  being  come,  they  went  early 
into  the  market-place,  each  armed  with  a  dagger,  and  sted- 

fast  to  his  purpose.  ,      i  •    r  i 

In  the  mean  time,  Hippias  was  seen  issuing,  with  his  fol- 
lowers, from  the  palace,  to  give  orders,  without  the  city,  to 
the  guards,  for  the  intended  ceremony.  As  the  two  fi  lends 
continued  to  follow  him  at  a  little  distance,  they  perceived  one 
of  those  to  whom  they  had  communicated  the  design,  talking 
very  familiarly  with  him,  which  made  them  apprehend  their 
plot  was  betrayed.  Eager,  therefore,  to  execute  their  designs, 
they  were  preparing  to  strike  the  blow,  but  recollected  that 
the  real  aggressor  would  thus  go  unpuni'^hcd      Thev  oner 


I 


I 


I 
I 


S4 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


3S 


more,  therefore,  returned  into  the  city,  willing  to  begm  their 
revenee  upon  the  author  of  their  indignities. 

Thev  were  not  long  in  quest  of  Hipparchus :  they  met  h  m 
upInThdr  leturn,  a^d,  rushing  "P-  W-' ^espatch^d  hi« 
with  their  daeirers ;  but  were,  soon  afterwards,  themselves 
Sn  in  the  umult.  Hippias,  hearing  of  what  was  done,  to 
pitve  U  farther  disorders,  got  all  those  disarmed  whom  he  ir 
Thelcast  suspected  of  being  privy  to  the  design;  and  then 

"' AmoS  t"r&s  of  the  late  assertors  of  freedom,  was 
one  Leona,  a  courtezan,  who,  by  ^e  charms  of  her  beauty, 
an  I  her  skill  in  playing  on  the  harp,  had  capUvatcd  some  ol 
the  conspi  ators%.d  was  supposed  to  be  deeply  engaged  in 
Ihe  desl™.    As  the  tyrant,  lor  such  the  late  attempt  had 
rendered^im,  was  conscious  that  nothing  was  concea  ed  from 
lbs  woman,  he  ordered  her  to  be  put  to  the  torture,  in  order 
to  extort  the  names  of  the  accomplices.     But  she  bore  all  the 
cruelty  of  their  torments,  with  invincible  constancy ;  and,  lest 
she  sh'^uld,  in  the  agony  of  her  pain,  be  induced  to  a  confes- 
sion, she  bit  off  her  own  tongue,  aiul  spit  it  m  the  tyrant  s  face 
In'  this  manner,  she  died,  faithful  to  the  cause  of  libert>  ; 
showing  the  world  a  remarkable  example  of  constancy  in  her 
sex     The  Athenians  would  not  suffer  the  memory  of  so  heroic 
abaction' to  pass  into  oblivion.    They  erected  a  statue  to  her 
memo.°;^n  which,  a  lioness  was  represented  without  a  tongu^^ 

In  the  mean  time  Hippias  put  no  bounds  to  his  mdipation. 
A  rebellious  people  ever  makes  a  Suspicious  tyrant.  Numbers 
of  citizens  were  put  to  death ;  and,  to  guard  h™self,for  he 
future,  av-ainst  a  like  enterprise,  he  endeavoured  to  establish 
1  is  powi:-  by  foreign  alliances.  He  gave  his  daughter  in  mar- 
vlJ^  to  the  son  of  the  tyrant  of  Lampsacus;  hei^-'^^tel  a 
correspondence  with  Artaphei-nes,  governor  of  Sardis;  and 
endeavoured  to  gain  the  friendship  of  the  Lacedemonians, 
who  were  then  the  most  powerful  people  of  Greece. 

But  he  was  supplanted  in  those  very  alliances  from  which 
he  hoped  the  greatest  assistance.    The  family  of  the  A  cmae- 
onidx,  who,  from  the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  had  been 
banished  from  Athens,  endeavoured  to  undermine  his  inter- 
ests at  Sparta;  and  they  at  length  succeeded.     Possessed  of 
Kreat  riches,  and  being  also  very  liberal  in  their  distribution 
amonir  o;her  public  services,  they  obtained  liberty  to  rebuild 
the  temple  at  Delphos,  which  they  fronted,  in  a  most  magni- 
ficeut  manner,  with  Parian  marble.     So  noble  a  mumficence 
was  not  without  a  proper  acknowledgment  of  gratitude,  from 
the  priestess  of  Apollo ;  who,  willing  to  oblige  them,  made 
her  oracle  the  echo  of  their  desires. 


i 


As  tliere  was  nothing,  therefore,  which  this  family  so  ar- 
dently desired  as  the  downfal  of  regal  power  in  Athens,^thc 
priestess  seconded  their  intentions ;  and,  whenever  the  Spar- 
tans came  to  consult  the  oracle,  no  promise  was  ever  made  of 
the  gods'  assistance,  but  upon  condition  that  Athens  should 
be  set  free.     This  order  was  so  often  repeated  by  the  oracle, 
that  the  Spartans  at  last  resolved  to  obey.     Their  first  at- 
tempts weie,  however,  unsuccessful:    the  troops  they    sent 
against  the  tyrant  were  repulsed  with  loss.     A  second  effort 
succeeded.     Athens  was  besieged  ;  and  the  children  of  Hip 
pias  were  made  prisoners,  as  they  were  secretly  conveyed  to 
a  place  of  safety  out  of  the  city.     To  redeem  these  from  sla- 
very, the  father  was  obliged  to  come  to  an  accommodation ; 
by  which,  he  consented  to  give  up  his  pretensions  to  his  sove- 
reign power ;  and  to  depart  out  of  the  Athenian  territories, 

in  five  days. 

Thus,  Athens  was  once  more  set  free  from  its  tyrants  ;  and 
ol)tained  its  liberty  the  very  same  year  that  the  kings  were 

^  expelled  from  Rome.  The  family  of  Alcmaeon  Avere 
^'  .  chiefly  instrumental ;  but  the  people  seemed  fonder  ol 
^^^^'    acknowledging  their  obligations  to  the  two  friends  who 

struck  the  first  blow.  . 

The  names  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogilon  were  held  in 
the  highest  respect,  in  all  succeeding  ages ;  and  scarcely  con- 
sidered inferior  even  to  the  gods  themselves.  Their  statues 
were  erected  in  the  market-place ;  an  honour,  which  had  nev- 
er been  rendered  to  any  before ;  and,  gazing  upon  these,  the 
people  caught  a  love  for  freedom  ;  and  a  detestation  for  ty- 
ranny, which  neither  time  nor  terrors  could  ever  after  remove. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

a  short  Survey  of  the  State  of  Greece^  previous  to  the  Persum 

War. 

Hitherto,  we  have  seen  the  states  of  Greece  in  constant 
fluctuation ;  different  states  rising,  and  others  disappearing  j 
one  petty  people  opposed  to  another,  and  both  swallowed  up 
by  a  third.  Every  city  emerging  from  the  ancient  form  of 
government,  which  was  originally  imposed  upon  it ;  and,  by 
degrees,  acquiring  greater  freedom.  We  have  seen  the  ii> 
troduction  of  written  laws ;  and  the  benefits  they  produced, 
by  giving  stability  to  government. 

During  these  struggles  for  power,  among  their  neighbour- 
ing states,  and  for  freedom  at  home,  the  moral  sciences,  the 
arts  of  eloquence,  poetry,  and  arms,  were  making  a  rapiJ 


S6 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


37 


progress  among  them  :  and  those  institutions  which  they  ori 
ginally  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians,  were  every  day  receiv- 
ing signal  improvements. 

As  Greece  was  now  composed  of  several  small  republics, 
bordering  upon  each  other,  and  differing  in  their  laws,  char- 
acters, and  customs,  this  was  a  continual  source  of  emulation : 
and  every  city  was  not  only  desirous  of  warlike  superiority 
but  also  of  excelling  in  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  refinement 
Hence,  they  were  always  under  arms;  and  continually  exer 
cised  in  war :  while  their  philosophers  and  poets  travelleo 
from  city  to   city;  and,  by   their    exhortations   and    songs, 
warmed  them  with  a  love  of  virtue,  and  with  an  ardour  of 
military  glory. 

These  peaceful  and  military  accomplishments  raised  them 
to  their  highest  pitch  of  grandeur ;  and  they  now  wanted  only 
an  enemy  worthy  of  their  arms,  to  show  the  world  their  su- 
periority. The  Persian  monarchy,  the  greatest,  at  that  time, 
in  the  world,  soon  offered  itself  as  their  opponent ;  and  the 
contest  ended  with  its  total  subversion. 

But  as  Greece  was  continually  changing,  not  only  its  gov- 
ernment, but  its  customs ;  as,  in  one  century,  it  presented  a 
very  diiferent  picture  from  what  it  offered  in  the  preceding 
it  will  be  necessary  to  take  a  second  view  of  this  confederacy 
of  little  republics,  previous  to  their  contests  with  Persia:  as 
by  comparing  their  strength  with  that  of  their  opponent,  we 
shall  find  how  much  wisdom,  discipline,  and  valour,  are  si. 
perior  to  numbers,  wealth,  and  ostentation. 

Foremost,  in  this  confederacy,  we  may  reckon  the  city  of 
Athens,  commanding  the  little  state  of  Attica;  their  whole 
dominions  scarcely  exceeding  the  largest  of  our  English 
counties,  in  circumference.  But,  what  was  wanting  in  ex- 
tent, was  made  up  by  the  citizens  being  inured  to  war,  and 
impressed  with  the  highest  ideas  of  their  own  superiority. 
Their  orators,  their  philosophers,  and  their  poets,  had  already 
given  lessons  of  politeness  to  mankind ;  and  their  generals, 
though  engaged  only  in  petty  conflicts  with  their  neighbours, 
had  begun  to  practise  new  stratagems  in  war. 

There  were  three  kinds  of  inhabitants  in  Athens :  citizens, 
strangers,  and  servants.  Their  number  usually  amounted  to 
twenty-one  thousand  citizens,  ten  thousand  strangers,  and 
from  forty  to  sixty  thousand  servants.  A  citizen  could  only 
be  such,  by  birth,  or  adoption.  To  be  a  natural  citizen  of 
Athens,  it  was  necessary  to  be  born  of  a  father  and  mother, 
both  Athenians,  and  both  free.  The  people  could  confer 
the  freedom  of  the  city  upon  strangers:  and  those  whom 
the"  had  so  adopted,  enjoyed  almost  the  same  rights  and 


'|| 


privileges  as  the  natural  citizens.  The  quality  of  a  citizen 
of  Athens,  was  sometimes  granted,  in  honour  and  gratitude, 
to  those  who  meritexl  well  of  the  state ;  as  to  Hippocrates, 
the  physician :  and  even  kings  sometimes  canvassed  that  ti- 
tle for  themselves  and  Mieir  children.  When  the  young  men 
attained  thr  age  of  twenty,  they  were  enrolled  upon  the  list 
of  citizens,  after  having-taken  an  cath ;  and,  in  virtue  of  this, 
they  became  members  of  the  state. 

Strangers,  or  foreigners,  who  came  to  settle  at  Athens,  for 
the  sake  of  commerce,  or  of  exercising  any  trade,  had  no 
share  in  government,  nor  votes  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people. 
They  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  some  citizen ; 
and,  upon  that  account,  were  obliged  to  render  him  certain 
duties  and  services.  They  paid  a  yearly  tribute  to  the  state, 
of  twelve  drachmas ;  and,  in  default  of  payment,  were  made 
slaves,  and  exposed  to  sale. 

Of  servants,  tliere  were  some  free,  and  otliers  slaves,  who 
had  been  taken  in  war,  or  bought  of  such  as  trafficked  in  them. 
The  Athenians  were  as  remarkable  for  their  lenity  to  these 
unhappy  men,  as  the  Spartans  were  noted  for  their  severitjT 
and  cruelty.  There  was  even  an  asylum  for  slaves,  where  the 
oones  of  Theseus  had  been  interred ;  and  that  asylum  sub- 
sisted for  nearly  two  thousand  years. 

When  slaves  were  treated  with  too  much  rigour  and  inhu- 
manity, they  might  bring  their  masters  to  justice :  who,  if 
the  fact  were  sufficiently  proved,  were  obliged  to  sell  them  to 
another  master.  They  could  even  ransom  themselves  against 
their  master's  consent,  when  they  had  laid  up  money  enough 
for  that  purpose;  for,  out  of  what  they  got  by  their  labour, 
after  having  paid  a  certain  proportion  to  their  masters,  they 
kept  the  remainder  for  themselves ;  and  made  a  stock  of  it 
at  their  own  disposal.  Private  persons,  when  they  were  satis- 
fied with  their  services,  often  gave  them  their  liberty ;  and, 
when  the  necessity  of  the  times  obliged  the  state  to  make 
their  greatest  levies,  they  were  enrolled  among  the  troops ; 
and  from  thence  were  ever  after  free. 

The  annual  revenues  of  this  city,  according  to  Aristophanes, 
amounted  to  two  thousand  talents,  or  about  three  hundred 
thousand  pounds  sterling.  They  were  generally  gathered 
from  the  taxes  upon  agriculture  ;  the  sale  of  woods ;  the  pro- 
duce of  mines ;  the  contributions  paid  them  by  their  allies ; 
a  capitation,  levied  upon  the  uihabitaiits  of  the  country,  as 
well  natives  as  strangers ;  and  from  fines  laid  upon  dififerent 
misdemeanors. 

The  application  of  tnese  revenues  was  in  paying  the  troops, 
both  by  land  and  sea  •  building  and  fitting  out  fleets ;  keeping 


r 


38 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


39 


up  and  repairing  temples,  walls,  ports,  citadels,  and  other 
public  buildings.  But,  in  the  decline  of  the  republic,  the 
greater  part  was  consumed  in  frivolous  expenses,  games, 
feasts,  and  shows ;  which  cost  immense  sums,  and  were  of  no 
manner  of  utility  to  the  state. 

But  the  greatest  glory  of  Athens,  was  its  being  the  schoo- 
and  abode  of  polite  learning,  arts,  and  sciences.  The  study  of 
boetry,  eloquence,  philosophy,  and  mathematics,  began  there 
and  brought  these  branches  almost  to  their  utmost  perfection 
The  young  people  were  sent  first  to  leani  grammar,  under 
masters,  who  taught  them  regularly,  and  upon  the  principles 
of  their  own  language. 

Eloquence  was  studied  with  still  greater  attention ;  as,  in 
that  popular  government,  it  opened  the  way  to  the  highest 
employments.  To  the  study  of  rhetoric,  was  annexed  that 
of  philosophy,  which  comprised  all  the  sciences ;  and  in  these 
there  were  many  masters,  very  conversant,  but,  as  is  common, 
their  vanity  was  still  greater  than  their  pretensions. 

All  the  subordinate  states  of  Greece,  seemed  to  make 
Athens  the  object  of  their  imitation ;  and,  though  inferior  to 
it  upon  the  whole,  yet  each  produced  great  scholars,  and  re- 
markable warriors,  in  its  turn.  Sparta,  alone,  took  example 
from  no  other  state ;  but,  still  rigorously  attached  to  the  in- 
stitutions of  its  great  lawgiver,  Lycurgus,  it  disdained  all  the 
arts  of  peace,  which,  while  they  polished,  served  to  enervate, 
the  mind ;  and,  formed  only  for  war,  it  looked  forward  to 
campaigns  and  battles,  as  scenes  of  rest  and  tranquillity. 

All  the  laws  of  Sparta,  and  all  the  institutions  of  Lycur 
gus,  seemed  to  have  no  other  object,  than  war ;  all  other  em 
ployments,  arts,  polite  learning,  sciences,  trades,  and  even 
husbandry  itself,  were  prohibited  amongst  them. 

The  citizens  of  Lacedaemon  were  of  two  sorts ;  those  who 
inhabited  the  city  of  Sparta,  and,  who,  for  that  reason,  were 
called  Spartans ;  and  those  who  inhabited  the  country  depen- 
oent  thereon.  Id  the  times  of  Lycurgus,  the  Spartans  amount- 
ed to  nine  thousand  men ;  the  countrymen  to  thirty  thousfcrtd. 
This  number  was  rather  diminished  than  increased,  in  suc- 
ceeding times ;  but  it  still  composed  a  formidable  body,  that 
often  gave  laws  to  the  rest  of  Greece. 

The  Spartan  soldiers,  properly  so  called,  were  considered 
as  the  flower  of  the  nation ;  and  we  may  judge  of  their  esti- 
mation,  by  the  anxiety  the  republic  expressed,  when  three  hun- 
dred of  them  were  once  taken  prisoners  by  the  Athenians. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  great  valour  of  the  Spartan  state, 
it  was  formed  rather  for  a  defensive,  than  an  offensive  war. 
It  was  always  careful  to  spare  its  own  troops;  and,  as  it  had 


vtiy  little  money,  was  not  in  a  capacity  to  send  its  armies 
upon  distant  expeditions. 

The  armies,  both  of  Sparta  and  Athens,  were  composed  of 
four  sorts  of  troops  :  citizens,  allies,  mercenaries,  and  slaves. 
The  greater  number  of  troops  in  the  two  republics,  were 
composed  of  allies,  who  were  paid  by  the  cities  that  sent 
them.  Those  which  received  pay  from  their  employers,  wei*e 
styled  mercenaries.  The  number  of  slaves  attending  on  eve- 
ry army  was  very  great ;  and  the  Helotes  in  particular  were 
employed  as  light  infantry. 

The  Greek  infantry  consisted  of  two  kinds  of  soldiers ;  the 
one  heavy  armed,  and  carrying  great  shields,  spears,  and  scimi- 
tars ;  the  other  light  armed,  carrying  javelins,  bows,  and  slings. 
These  were  commonly  placed  in  the  front  of  the  battle,  or  upon 
the  wings,  to  shoot  their  arrows,  or  fling  their  javelins  and 
stones  at  the  enemy,  and  then  retire  through  the  intervals  be- 
hind the  ranks,  to  dart  out  occasionally,  upon  the  retiring 
enemy. 

The  Athenians  were  almost  strangers  to  cavalry;  and  the 
Lacedaemonians  did  not  begin  the  use  till  after  the  Wdr  with 
Messena.  They  raised  their  horse  principally  in  a  small  city, 
not  far  from  I^acedaemon,  called  Sciros ;  and  they  were  al- 
ways placed  on  the  extremity  of  the  left  wing;  which  post 
they  claimed  as  their  rightful  station. 

But,  to  recompense  this  defect  of  cavalry,  the  Athenians, 
in  naval  affairs,  had  a  great  superiority  over  all  the  states  of 
Greece.  As  they  had  an  extensive  sea  coast,  and,  as  the  pro- 
fession of  a  merchant  was  held  reputable  among  them,  their 
navy  increased ;  and  was  at  length  sufficiently  powerful,  to 
intimidate  the  fleets  of  Persia. 

Such,  were  the  two  states,  which,  in  some  measure,  engross- 
ed all  the  power  of  Greece  to  themselves;  and,  though  seve- 
ral petty  kingdoms  still  held  their  governments  in  indepen- 
dence, yet  they  owed  their  safety  to  the  mutual  jealousy  of 
these  powerful  rivals ;  and  always  found  shelter  from  the  one, 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  other.  Indeed,  the  dissimilari- 
ty of  their  habits,  manners,  and  education,  served  as  well  to 
divide  these  two  states,  as  their  political  ambition. 

The  Lacedaemonians  were  severe,  and  seemed  to  have 
something  almost  brutal  in  their  character.  A  government 
too  rigid,  and  a  life  too  laborious,  rendered  their  tempers 
haughtily  sullen  and  untractable. 

The  Athenians  were,  naturally,  obliging  and  agreeable, 
cheerful  among  each  other,  and  humane  to  \u:cir  inferiors : 
but  they  were  restless,  unequal,  timorous  fiftends.  and  ct^ri* 
cious  protectors. 


Ft 
> 


40  THE  HISTORY 

Hence,  neither  republic  could  sufficiently  win  over  th» 
smaller  states  of  Gi  eece  to  their  interests  ;  and,  although  then 
ambition  would  not  suffer  the  country  to  remain  in  repos^ 
vet  their  obvious  defects  were  always  a  bar  to  the  spreadmg 
of  their  dominion.  Thus,  the  mutual  jealousy  of  these  states 
kept  them  both  in  constant  readiness  for  war,  while  then 
common  defects  kept  the  lesser  states  independent. 

CHAPTER  V. 
From  the  Expulsion  of  Hippins,  to  the  Death  of  Danus, 
It  was  in  this  disposition  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  of  the 
lesser  states,  their  neighbours,  that  the  Persian  monarchy  be- 
can  to  interest  itself  in  their  disputes ;  and  made  itselt  an  urn- 
pire  in  their  contentions  for  liberty,  only  to  seize  upon  the  lib- 
erties  of  all.  It  has  been  already  related,  that  Hippias  being 
besieired  in  Athens,  and  his  children  being  taken  pris^oners: 
in  o-der  to  release  them,  he  consented  to  abdicate  the  sov- 
ereiin.  power,  and  to  leave  the  dominion  of  Athens  m  hvt 
days  Athens,  however,  in  recoviM-ing  its  liberty,  did  not  en- 
iov  that  tranquillity,  which  freedom  is  thought  to  bestoNV. 

Two  of  the  principal  citizens,  Calisthenes,  a  favourite  ui 
the  people,  and  Isagoras,  who  was  supported  by  the  rich,  be- 
jran  to  contend  for  that  power,  which  they  had,  but  a  Utile 
before,  joined  in  depressing.  The  former,  who  was  become 
very  popular,  made  an  alteration  in  the  form  of  their  estab 
lishment;  and,  instead  of  four  tribes,  whereof  they  before  con 
sisted,  enlarged  their  number  to  ten. 

He  also  instituted  the  giving  of  votes  by  Ostracism,  as  it 
was  called.  The  manner  of  performing  this,  was  for  every 
citizen,  not  under  sixty  years  old,  to  give  in  a  name,  written 
upon  a  tile,  or  oystershell,  (whence  the  method  of  voting 
had  its  name)  and  he  upon  whom  the  majority  fell,  was  pro- 
nounced  banished  for  ten  years.  These  laws,  evidently  cal- 
culated  to  increase  the  power  of  the  people,  were  so  displea- 
sing to  Isagoras,  that,  rather  than  submit,  he  had  recourse  to 
Cleomenes  king  of  Sparta,  who  undertook  to  espouse  his 
quarrel.  In  fact,  the  Lacedaemonians  only  wanted  a  favour- 
able pretext  for  lessening  and  destroying  the  power  of  Athens, 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  command  of  the  oracle,  they 
had  so  lately  rescued  from  tyranny.  ,.  .j    , 

Cleomenes,  therefore,  availing  himself  of  the  divided  state 
of  the  city,  entered  Athens,  and  procured  the  banishment  of 
Calisthenes,  with  seven  hundred  families  more,  who  had  si- 
*>od  with  him  in  the  latr.  commotions.     Not  contend  with  thi 


OF  GREECE. 


41 


■ 

r 


ne  endeavoured  to  new  model  the  state;  but,  being  strongly 
opposed  by  the  senate,  he  seized  upon  the  citadel ;  whence, 
however,  in  two  days  he  was  obliged  to  retire.  Calisthenes, 
perceiving  the  enemy  withdrawn,  returned,  with  his  follow- 
ers;  and, 'finding  it  vain  to  make  any  further  attempts  ior 
pov/er,  restored  the  government,  as  settled  by  Solon. 

In  ihe  mean  time,  the  Lacedemonians,  repenting  the  ser- 
vices they  had  rendered  their  rival  state,  and  perceiving 
the  impost  ire  of  the  oracle,  by  which  they  were  thus  impel- 
led to  act  agahist  their  own  interests,  began  to  think  of  reinstat 
ing  Hippias  on  the  throne.  But,  previous  to  this  attempt, 
thev  judged  it  prudent  to  consult  the  subordinate  states  o. 
Greece,  and  to  see  what  hopes  they  had  of  their  concurrence 
and  approbation.  Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  morti- 
fying  than  the  universal  detestation  with  which  their  propo- 
sal was  received,  by  the  deputies  of  the  states  of  Greece. 

The  deputy  of  Corinth  expressed  the  utmost  indignation 
at  the  design  ;  and  seemed  astonished,  that  the  Spartans,  who 
were  the  avowed  enemy  of  tyrants,  should  thus  espouse  the 
interests  of  one  noted  for  cruelty  and  usurpation.  1  he  rest 
of  the  states  warmlv  seconded  his  sentiments,  and  the  La- 
cedaemonians, covered  with  confusion  and  remorse  abandon- 
ed Hippias  and-  his  cause  for  ever  after.  _ 

Hippias,  being  thus  frustrated  in  his  hopes  of  exciting  the 
Gree.vs  to  second  his  pretensions,  was  resolved  to  have  re- 
course to  one  who  was  considered  as  a  much  more  powerful 
patron.    Wherefore,  taking  his  leave  of  the  Spartans,  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  Artaphernes,  governor  of  Sardis,  for  the  king 
of  Persia ;  whom  he  endeavoured,  by  every  art,  to  engage  m  a 
war   against  Athens.     He   represented  to  him   the  divided 
state  of  the  citv ;  he  enlarged  upon  its  riches,  and  the  happi- 
ness of  its  situation  for  trade :  he  added  the  ease  with  which 
it  might  be  taken,  and  the  glory  that  would  attend  success 
Influenced  by  these  motives,  the  pride  and  the  avarice  ot 
tha  Persian  court  were  inflamed,  and  nothing  was  so  ardently 
sought,  as  a  pretext  of  a  dispute  with  the  Athenians.     When, 
therefore,  that  city  sent  to  the  Persian  court   to  vinaicate 
their  proceedings,  alleging  that  Hippias  deserved  no  counte- 
nance  from  so  great  a  people ;  the  answer  returned  was.  That 
if  the  Athenians  would  be  safe,  they  must  admit  Hippias  Jor  their 

'Athens,  having  so  lately  thrown  off  the  yoke,  had  too  live- 
Iv  a  sense  of  its  past  calamities,  to  accept  safety,  upon  such 
base  conditions  :  and  resolved  to  suffer  to  the  last  extremity, 
rather  than  open  its  gates  to  a  tyrant  Wh^n  Artaphernes, 
therefore,  demanded  the  restoration  of  Hippias,  the  Athenians 


42 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


4S 


I 


boldly  returned  hiw  a  direct  and  absolute  refusal.  From  this, 
arose  the  war  between  Greece  and  Persia;  one  of  the  most 
glorious,  and  the  most  remarkable,  that  ever  graced  the  annals 
of  kingdoms. 

But  there  were  more  causes  than  one,  tending  to  make  a 
breach  between  these  powerful  nations,  and  produce  an  irre- 
concilable aversion  for  each  other.  The  Greek  colonies  of  Io- 
nia, iEolia,  and  Caria,  that  were  settled  for  above  five  hundred 
years  in  Asia  Minor,  were  at  length  subdued  by  Croesus,  king 
of  Lydia ;  and  he,  in  turn,  sinking  under  the  power  of  Cyrus, 
his  conquests  of  course  fell  in  with  the  rest  of  his  dominions 

The  Persian  monarch,  thus  possessed  of  a  vastly  extensive 
territory,  placed  governors  over  the  several  cities  that  were 
^us  subdued ;  and,  as  men  bred  up  in  a  despotic  court,  Avere 
likely  to  imitate  the  example  set  them  at  home,  it  is  most 
probable  they  abused  their  power.  Be  this  as  it  may,  in  all 
the  Greek  cities,  they  were  called  tyrants ;  and,  as  these  littk 
states  had  not  yet  lost  all  idea  of  freedom,  they  took  ever) 
oppoi  tunity  to  recover  their  liberty,  and  made  many  bold,  but 
unsuccessful  struggles,  in  that  glorious  cause.  The  Ionian) 
particularly,  who  bore  the  greatest  sway  among  them,  let  no 
occasion  slip,  which  promised  the  smallest  hopes  of  shaking 
off  the  Persian  yoke. 

That  which  favoured  their  designs,  upon  the  present  occa- 
sion, was  the  expedition  of  Darius  into  Scythia;  into  which 
country,  he  sent  a  numerous  army,  laying  a  bridge  over  the 
rivei  Isther  for  that  purpose.  The  lonians  were  apoointed 
to  guard  this  important  pass ;  but  were  advised,  by  Mlltiades 
whom  we  shall  afterwards  find  performing  nobler  exploits,  to 
break  down  the  bridge,  and  thus  cut  oif  the  Persian  retreat 
The  lonians,  however,  rejected  his  counsel ;  and  Darius  re 
turned  with  his  army  into  Europe,  where  he  added  Thrace 
and  Macedon  to  the  number  of  his  conquests. 

Histizus,  the  tyrant  of  Miletus,  and  the  person  who  op- 
posed the  advice  of  Miltiades,  being  of  an  ambitious  and  in- 
iriguing  disposition,  was  willing  to  lessen  the  merit  of  all  his 
contemporaries,  in  order  to  enhance  his  own  :  but  he  was  de- 
ceived in  his  expectations  of  success:  from  these  schemes,  Dari- 
us, justly  suspecting  his  fidelity,  took  him  with  him  to  Susa^ 
under  pretence  of  using  his  friendship  and  advice,  but  in  re- 
ality of  preventing  his  future  machinations  at  home.  But 
Histiaeus  saw  too  clearly  the  cause  of  his  detention,  which  he 
regarded  as  a  specious  imprisonment ;  and  therefore  took 
every  opportunity  of  secretly  exciting  the  lonians  to  a  revolt 
hoping  that  be  himself  might,  one  day,  be  sent  to  bring  thein 
lo  remson. 


Aristagoras  was,  at  that  time,  statesman's  deputy  at  Mile- 
tus, and  received  the  instructions  of  his  master  to  stir  up  the 
Ionian  cities  to  revolt  with  the  utmost  alacrity.  From  a  late 
failure  of  this  general  upon  Naxos,  his  credit  was  ruined  at  the 
Persian  court ;  and  no  alternative  remained  for  him,  but  to  com- 
ply with  the  advice  of  Histiaeus,  in  exciting  a  revolt ;  and  of 
trying  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  a  new  confederacy. 

The  first  step  Aristagoras  took,  to  engage  the  affections  of 
the  lonians,  was  to  throw  up  his  power  in  Miletus,  where  he 
was  deputy,  and  to  reinstate  that  little  place  in  all  its  formei 
freedom.  He  then  made  a  journey  through  all  Ionia,  where 
by  his  example,  his  credit,  and  perhap?  his  menaces,  he  in- 
duced every  other  governor  to  imitate  his  example. 

They  all  complied  the  more  cheerfully,  as  the  Persian 
power,  since  the  check  it  had  received  in  Scythia,  was  the 
•ess  able  to  punish  their  revolt,  o**  to  protect  them  in  their 
continued  attachment.  Having  thus  united  all  these  little 
states  by  the  consciousness  of  one  common  off*ence,  he  then 
threw  off"  the  mask,  declaring  himself  at  the  head  of  the  con- 
federacy, and  bid  defiance  to  the  power  of  Persia. 

To  enable  himself  to  carry  on  the  war  with  more  vigour, 
ne  went,  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  to  Lacedaimon, 
in  order  to  engage  that  state  in  his  interests  ;  and  incite  it  to 
a  war  with  a  power,  that  seemed  every  day  to  threaten  the 
general  liberty  of  Greece.  Cleomenes  was  at  that  time  king 
of  Sparta ;  and  to  him  Aristagoras  applied  for  assistance,  in 
what  he  represented  as  the  common  cause. 

He  represented  to  him,  that  the  lonians  and  Lacedaemoni- 
ans were  countrymen ;  that  it  would  be  for  the  honour  of  Spar- 
ta to  concur  with  him  in  the  design  he  had  formed  for  resto- 
ring the  lonians  to  their  liberty ;  that  the  Persians  were  ener- 
vated by  luxury ;  that  their  riches  would  serve  to  reward  the 
conquerors,  while  nothing  was  so  easy  as  their  overthrow 
Considering  the  present  spirit  of  the  lonians,  it  would  not  be 
difficult,  he  said,  for  the  victorious  Spartans  to  carry  theii 
arms  even  to  the  gates  of  Susa,the  metropolis  of  the  Persian 
empire ;  and  thus  give  laws  to  those  who  presumed  to  call 
themselves  the  sovereigns  of  the  world. 

Cleomenes  desired  time  to  consider  this  proposal ;  and  be 
mg  bred  up  in  Spartan  ignorance,  demanded  how  far  it  was 
from  the  Ionian  sea  to  Susa  ?  Aristagoras,  without  considering 
the  tendency  of  the  question,  answered,  that  it  might  be  9 
journey  of  three  months.  Cleomenes  made  no  ansM-er,  but, 
turning  his  back  upon  so  great  an  adventurer,  gave  orders, 
that,  before  sunset,  he  should  quit  the  city  Still,  however, 
Aristagoras  follow^ed  him  to  his  house;  und,  finding  the  in 


44 


THE  IHSTOlllf 


> 


HRcacT  of  his  eloquence,  tried  what  his  ofiers  of  wealth  could 
do.  lie  idl  first  wfiered  him  ten  talents;  he  then  raised  the 
■uni  to  fifteen ;  and  it  is  unknown  what  effect  such  a  large 
«um  nii^ht  have  had  upon  the  Spartan,  had  not  his  daughter 
a  child  of  nine  years  old,  who  was  accidentally  present  at  the 
propos;^!,  cried  out,  Fty  fiiiher,  or  this  stranger  will  comtpt  you, 
Ihi^  advice,  ^iven  in  the  moment  of  suspense,  prevailed: 
Cleomrnes  refused  his  bribes;  and  Aristagoras  went  to  sut 
at  other  cities,  where  eloquence  was  more  honoured,  and 
wealth  more  alluring. 

Athens  was  a  city  where  he  expected  a  more  favourable 
reception.  Nothing  could  be  more  fortunate  for  his  interests 
than  his  arrival,  at  the  very  time  they  had  received  the  pe- 
remptory message  from  the  Persians,  to  admit  their  tyrant, 
or  to  fear  the  consequences  of  their  disobedience.  The  Athe- 
bians  were,  all  in  an  uproar ;  and  the  proposal  of  Aristagorai 
met  with  the  most  favourable  reception.  It  was  much  easier 
to  impose  upon  a  multitude,  than  a  single  person  :  the  whole 
body  of  citizens  engaged  immediately  to  furnish  twenty  ships, 
to  a^st  his  designs ;  and,  to  these,  the  Eretrians  and  Eubae- 
ana  added  five  more. 

Aristagoras,  thus  supplied,  resolved  to  act  with  vigour;  and, 
iiaving  collected  all  his  forces  together,  set  sail  for  Ephesus : 
wkKtr^  leaving  his  fleet,  he  entered  the  Persian  frontiers,  and 
marched  to  Sardis,  the  capital  city  of  Lydia.  Artaphernes, 
who  resided  there  as  the  Persian  viceroy,  finding  the  city  un- 
tenable, i*esolved  to  secure  hii.iself  in  the  citadel,  which  he 
knew  could  not  easily  be  forced.  As  most  of  the  houses  of  this 
city  were  built  with  reeds,  and  consequently  very  combustible, 
one  of  the  houses  being  set  on  fire  by  an  Ionian  soldier,  the 
iamct  quickly  spread  to  all  the  rest.  Thus,  the  whole  town  was 
quickly  reduced  to  ashes,  and  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  slain. 

But  the  Persians  were  soon  avenged  for  this  unnecessary 
cruelty ;  for,  either  recovering  themselves  from  their  former 
panic,  or  being  reinforced  by  the  Lydians,  they  charged  the 
lunians  in  a  body,  and  drove  them  back,  with  great  slaughter. 
The  pursuit  was  continued  even  as  far  as  Ephesus ;  where  the 
vanquished  and  the  victors  arriving  together,  a  great  carnage 
easued ;  and  but  a  small  part  of  the  routed  army  escaped 
which  took  shelter  aboard  the  fleet,  or  in  the  neighbouring 
cities. 

Other  defeats  followed  this;  and  the  Athenians, intimidat 

ed    by  such  a  commencement  of  ill  success,  could  not  be  per- 

•aiaded  to  continue  the  war.     The  Cyprians  were  obliged 

c<  more  to  submit  to  the  Persian  yoke.     The  lonians  lost 

re  of  their  towns,  one  after  another;  and  Aristagora« 


OF  GREECE. 


45 


apng  *rAo  fhrace,  was  cui  oif,  by  the  inhabitants,  with  all 
his  torces. 

In  the  mean  time,  Histiaeus,  who  was  the  original  cause  of 
all  these  misfortunes,  finding  that  he  began  to  be  suspected  in 
Persia,  left  that  court,  under  a  pretence  of  going  to  quell  those 
troubles,  which  he  had  all  along  secretly  fomented  :  but  his 
duplicity  of  conduct  rendered  him  now  suspicious  to  both 
parties.  Artaphernes,  the  Persian  viceroy,  plainly  accused 
him  ot  treachery ;  while  his  own  Milesians  refused  to  admit 
him  as  their  master. 

Thus  wavering,  uncertain,  and  not  knowing  where  to  turn 
having  picked  up  a  few  scattered  remains  of  the  routed  ar' 
mies,  he  fell  in  with  Harpagus,  one  of  the  Persian  generals 
who  routed  his  forces,  and  made  Histiaeus  himself  a  prison- 
er.    Being  sent  to  Artaphernes,  that  inhuman  commander 
immediately  caused  him  to  be  crucified ;  and  ordered  his  head 
to  be  sent  to  Darius,  who  received  the  present  with  that  di 
gust  which  evinced  his  superior  humanity.     He  wept  over  it, 
with  a  friendly  sorrow ;  and  ordered  that  it  should  receive 
honourable  interment. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  affairs  of  the  Ionian  confederacy  eve- 
ry day  became  more  desperate.     The  Persian  generals,  find 
ing  that  Miletus  was  the  city  on  which  they  chiefly  depended 
resolved  to  march  thither,  with  all  their  forces ;  concluding' 
that  having  taken  that  city,  all  the  rest  would  submit,  of 
course.     The  lonians,  having  intelligence  of  this  design,  de- 
termined, in  a  general  assembly,  to  make  no  opposition  by  land 
wheie  the  Persians  were  too  powerful ;  but  to  fortifv  Miletus' 
and  exert  all  their  efforts  by  sea,  where  they  hoped  for  Mie 
advantage,  from  their  superior  skill  in  naval  evolutions. 

They  accordingly  assembled  a  fleet  of  three  hundi-ed  ships, 
at  a  little  island  over  against  Miletus ;  and,  on  the  superiority 
of  this  fleet,  they  placed  their  whole  reliance.  But  the  Per- 
sian gold  effected,  what  their  arms  were  unable  to  compass. 
1  heir  emissaries  having  secretly  debauched  the  greater  part 
of  the  confederates,  and  engaged  them  to  desert,  when  the 
two  fleets  came  to  engage,  the  ships  of  Samos,  Lesbos,  and 
several  other  places,  sailed  off,  and  returned  to  their  ovm 
country.  Thus,  the  remaining  part  of  the  fleet,  which  did 
not  amount  to  more  than  a  hundred  ships,  was  quickly  over- 
powered, and  a!most  totally  destroyed. 

After  this,  the  city  of  Miletus  was  besieged,  and  was  easily 
taken.  All  the  other  cities,  as  well  on  the  continent  as 
among  the  islands,  were  forced  to  return  to  their  duty.  Those 
who  continued  obstinate,  were  treated  with  great  severity. 
The  handsomest  of  the  young  men  were  chosen  to  serve  in 


44 


THE  HISTORY 


y 


efficacy  of  his  eloquence,  tried  what  his  offers  of  wealth  could 
do.  He  at  first  t»ffered  him  ten  talents ;  he  then  raised  the 
sum  to  hfteen;  and  it  is  unknoxrn  what  effect  such  a  laret 
*um  might  have  had  upon  the  Spartan,  had  not  his  daughter 
a  chiJd  of  nine  years  old,  who  was  accidentally  present  at  the 
proposal,  cried  out,  Fly  faihtr,  or  this  stranger  wiU  corrxipt  you, 
J  his  advice,  Mven  m  the  moment  of  suspense,  prevaUed: 
Ueomenes  reused  his  bribes;  and  Aristagoras  went  to  sut 
-  at  other  ciUes  where  eloquence  was  more  honoured,  and 
wealth  more  alluring. 

Athens  wa^  a  city  where  he  expected  a  more  favourable 
reception.  Nothing  could  be  more  fortunate  for  his  interests 
than  his  arrival,  at  the  very  time  they  had  received  the  pe- 
remptory  message  from  the  Persians,  to  admit  their  tyraVu 
or  to  fear  the  consequences  of  their  disobedience.  The  Athe' 
mans  were  all  in  an  uproar ;  and  the  proposal  of  Aristagorai 
met  with  the  most  favourable  reception.  It  was  much  easier 
to  impose  upon  a  multitude,  than  a  single  person  :  the  whole 
body  of  citizens  engaged  immediately  to  furnish  twenty  ships. 

II  t!lf  ]"«  ^^"'^^J  ^^»  t«  these,  the  Eretrians  and  Eub«. 
ans  added  five  more. 

Aristagoras,  thus  supplied,  resolved  to  act  with  vigour;  and, 
having  collected  all  his  forces  together,  set  sail  for  Ephesus  • 

ma'^rh^dT^^  ';'  'r'  '^  .^'^^^^^  theVersian  fronZers,  ^'i 
who  r.  -^  /r^*'''  the  capital  city  of  Lydia.     Artaphe^nes, 

t^nll", '*'!.''"  ^'  '^^^  ^^^^^^"^  viceroy,  finding  the  city  un.' 
tenable,  resolved  to  secure  hiiaself  in  the  citadel,  which  he 
knew  could  not  easily  be  forced.  As  most  of  the  hoises  of  this 
city  were  built  with  reeds,  and  consequently  very  combustible 
one  of  the  houses  being  set  on  fire  by  an  Ionian  soldier,  the 
flames  quickly  spread  to  all  the  rest.  Thus,  the  whole  town  was 
quickly  reduced  to  ashes,  and  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  slain. 
r..7.it       f  P*^'*?^^"^  ^ere  soon  avenged  for  this  unnecessary 
cruelty ;  for,  either  recovering  themselves  from  their  former 
panic,  or  bemg  remforced  by  the  Lydians,  they  charged  the 
lonians  m  a  body,  and  drove  them  back,  with  great  slaughter 
1  he  pursuit  was  continued  even  as  far  as  Ephesus ;  where  the 
vanquished  and  the  victors  arriving  together,  a  great  carnage 
ensued;  and  but  a  small  part  of  the%outed  ^y  escaped^ 

erne's  ^^""^^  ^^^  ^""^^^  ''''  '"  ^^^  neighbouring 

Other  defeats  followed  this;  and  the  Athenians, intimidat 

cd    by  such  a  commencement  of  ill  success,  could  not  be  per.    • 

suaded  to  continue  the  war.     The  Cyprians  were  obliVed 

ce  more  to  submit  to  the  Persian  yoke.     The  lonians  hu 

re  of  their  towns,  one  after  another;  and  Aristago-»« 


^' 


op  GREECE. 


45 


i 


Rrcis"*  '^"^  *"  "'"'  ''^'  ^^  "^  i^habiunte,  with  .fl 
In  the  meai  time,  Histiaeas  who  was  the  original  caose  of 

A^^tilul  f  ?  ^  *"  *'°"S^  secreUy  fomented :  but  his 
duplicity  of  conduct  rendered  him  now  suspicious  to  boS 
parues  Artaphemes,  the  Persian  viceroy,  pS  a  °c^ 
^m  i  ^'^ZL:.''''  "^  °^  Milesians^Pf  Je^^ t^S 
Thus  wavering,  uncertain,  and  not  knowing  where  to  turn 

^i^'J^. .  ^  K  "  7"^  Harp^s,  one  of  the  Persian  generaU^ 
who  routed  h,s  forces,  and  made  Histiseus  himself  fpri^n^ 
er.     Being  sent  to  Artaphemes,  that  inhuman  comSer 

gust  whkh evfn^Ti;''  °  '^^^"l^  '^^  P"=^"'  ''''^  «»>»'  ^i 
i?f h  r  r  •    !,y"'=«*'  •"«  superior  humanity.     He  w«nt  over  it. 

hol^SetLreT'  "*"'  °-'^"^''  ^^'  '^  ^""""5  recTi;^ 

rv^L'^tT""^  ''""''  "J^  ^'^*^"  "'■  *«  Ionian  confederacy  eve- 
iL  flT  hSrT'  """^  desperate.     The  Persian  generals,  fii^d 
ins  hat  Miletus  was  the  city  on  which  they  chilfly  depended 
resolyed  to  march  thither,  with  all  their  forces;  concrdtng 

t?mi^;H  ^  ""'"f'  •**'■'"»  •nt'^'ligence  of  this  design,  de- 

whSe  thi  P  '^  ^""■*'  assembly,  to  make  no  opposition  b^land 
wheie  the  Persians  were  too  powerful ;  but  to  fortify  Milet  , 

^Im^^i-'  """■: '^ff-'''  by'^sea,  whe're  they  hope'd  for  -he 
advantage,  from  their  superior  skill  in  naval  evolutions 
.f  tuZ  *P":°'^«&'y  assembled  a  fleet  of  three  hundml  shins 
at  a  little  island  over  against  Miletus;  and,  on  the  superiority' 

sian  gold  effected,  what  their  arms  were  unable  to  compasr 
Their  emissaries  having  secretly  debauched  the  greate^'Trt 

°io  fleerrfm^T'  ''"•'  *="&^^1..^»'em  '<>  ^eserl  when^hi 
sTverll  ^.h         1      ^"S^ST' ">«  ^h'PS  of  Samos,  Lesbos,  and 

^In^v      Thu^T"'  '""'•^•°'^'  '«''  '^'"""'''  '<>  their 'o,^ 
country.     Thus,  the  remaining  part  of  the  fleet  whirh  HiH 

no   amount  to  more  than  a  bundled  ships,  tasjicklytt^ 
powered,  and  a!most  totally  destroyed  ^      "'X  """-o 

tak'^n     Au'ft  "II  °^  -'^  ■'""  ""^  "^"''S^d,  and  was  easily 

amo^;.fl^     .1    ^'"'  r""*':  »'  '^'"  °"  ">«  <^ontinent  a. 
among  the  islands,  were  forced  to  return  to  their  duty   Those 

who  continued  obstinate,  wei^  treated  with  ^at^severit^ 
The  handsomest  of  the  young  men  were  chosin  to  ^Vve  S, 


46 


THE  HISTORY 


!  i 


the  king's  palace,  and  the  young  women  were  all  sent  into 
Persia. 

Th  IS,  ended  the  revolt  of  the  lonians,  which  continued  six 
ypars.  from  its  first  breaking  out,  under  Aristagoras;  and 
tills  was  the  third  time  the  lonians  were  obliged  to  undergo 
the  yoke  of  foreign  dominion ;  for  they  inherited  a  natural 

-^u  U'^^^°"™'  ^^'^^^^  a"  tl^e  Greeks  were  known  to  possess. 
A  •  "^^f  ^^s*^"s,  having  thus  subdued  the  greater  part  of 
Asia  Minor,  began  to  look  towards  Europe,  as  offering  con- 
quests worthy  their  ambition.  The  assistance  given  the  loni- 
ans  by  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  the  refusal  of  that  state  to 
admit  Hippias  as  their  king;  the  taking  of  Sardis,  and  the 
contempt  they  testified  for  the  Persian  power;  were  all  suffi- 
cient  motives  for  exciting  the  resentment  of  that  empire  • 
and  for  marking  out  all  Greece  for  destruction.  ' 

Darius,  therefore,  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  his  reign, 
having  recalled  all  his  other  generals,  sent  Mardonius,  the 
son  ot  Gobrias,  a  young  nobleman  who  had  lately  married 
one  oi  the  king's  daughters,  to  command  in  chief  throughout 
all  the  maritime  parts  of  Asia ;  and  particularly  to  revenfje 
the  burmng  of  Sardis.  This  was  an  offence  which  that  mon- 
arch seemed  particularly  to  resent ;  and,  from  the  time  of 
that  conflagration,  he  had  given  orders  for  one  of  his  attend- 
ants every  time  he  sat  down  to  table,  to  cry  out,  Bemember 
the  Jithenians. 

Mardonius,  willing  to  second  his  master's  animosity,  quick- 
ly  passed  into  Thrace,  at  the  head  of  a  large  arm/,  and  so 
terrified  the  inhabitants  of  that  country,  that  they  yielded 
implicit  obedience  to  his  power.  From  thence,  he  set  sail 
for  Macedonia ;  but,  his  fleet  attempting  to  double  the  cape 
ol  Mount  Athos,  in  order  to  gain  the  coasts  of  that  country 
was  attacked  by  so  violent  a  tempest,  that  upwards  of  three 
hundred  ships  were  sunk,  and  above  twenty  thousand  men 
perished  in  the  sea. 

His  land  army,  that  took  the  longest  way  about,  met,  at 
the  same  time,  with  equal  distresses :  being  encamped  in  a 
place  of  no  security,  the  Thracians  attacked  them  by  niijht 
and  made  a  great  slaughter.  Mardonius  himself  was  wound' 
ed,  and,  finding  his  army  unable  to  maintain  the  field,  return- 
ed  to  the  Persian  court,  covered  with  grief  and  confusion  ; 
having  miscarried  both  by  sea  and  land. 

But  the  ill  success  of  one  or  two  campaigns,  was  not  suf- 
hcient  to  abate  the  resentment,  or  the  ardour,  of  the  king  of 
Persia.  Possessed,  as  he  was,  of  resources  almost  inexhaus- 
lible,  wealth  without  end,  and  armies  that  seemed  to  increase 
Irom  defeat,  he  only  grew  more  determined  from  every  re- 


f 


OF  GREECE. 


47 


pulse,  and  doubled  lus  preparations,  in  proportion  to  his  for- 
mer failures  He  now  perceived,  that'^thi  youth  and  inc:^ 
perience  of  Mardonius  were  unequal  to  so  great  an  under 
taking:  he  therefore  displaced  him,  and  appointed  h.  nU 
stead,  two  generals,  Datis,  a  Mede,  U  ArtaXrnes.'the  so^ 
of  him  who  was  late  governor  of  Sardis.  ' 

His  thoughts  were  earnestly  bent  on  attackinu  Greece 
wi  h  all  h,s  forces:  he  wished  to  take  a  signal  reve^n^^  u»o„' 
A  hens,  which  he  considered  as  the  principal  cau  l^  of '  he 
late  revolt  in  loma:  besides  Hippias  was  sdU  near  him  'o 
warm  his  ambition,  and  keep  his  resentment  alive     GrTeVe 
he  said,  was  now  an  object  fcr  such  a  conqueror;  the  world 

humbTeS  It  mlht'!'"^'"  ^'^'^  °^  ^''•""•^''°"  '  ^"'^  '^  "°t  °o°« 
age  oft  IS     '"  '"""  ''"PP'*"^  •=^^"  ^^^'"^  «  the  horn- 

Thus,  excited,  by  every  motive  of  ambition  and  reventre 
Oarius  resolved  to  bend  all  his  attention  to  a  war  w  th  G,  ee«' 

Smted'eVa  r''^r"^°-'  '"^  '^'^^  -"»  spies    whho„e 
uemocedes,  a  Greek  physician,  as  their  conductor,  to  briuL- 

h.m  information  with  respect  to  the  strength  and  shuat  o" 

j.f  all  the  states  of  Greece.    This  secret  deputation  faUeS 

cnaracter  of  heralds,  to  denounce  his  resentment    and    at 
he  same  time,  to  learn  how  the  different  states  of  the  co'un 
try  stood  affected  towards  him 

The  form  used  by  the  Persians,  when  they  ex  jected  sub. 
mission  from  lesser  states,  was  to  demand  eJrth 'and  tater 
in  the  monarch's  name:  and  such  as  refused  were  to  blco^' 

thSre"o?tr  l"  ".V"^  ^'^'^^  P°^'--     0""hl°  aS 
thereloie,  of  the  heralds  amongst  the  Greeks,  many  of  the 

manH',  ri^'"!'-"  ^"''''"'3  power,  complied  'with  tLir  de! 
mands.  1  he  .Egmelans,  with  some  of  the  islands,  also,  yi»ld- 
^  a  ready  submission;  and  almost  all,  but  Athens  and  W 
»,we,-e  contented  to  exchange  their  liberties  for  safety  '^ 

tnowUr?.,'^  "•'''^  "=P"''""  ^"^"^^y  disdained  lo  ac 

rreedom ;  and  were  resolved  to  maintain  it  to  the  Ia.it      T,. 

ed  they  threw  the  heralds,  the  one  into  a  well,  the  other  into 

a  ditch;  and    addmg  mockery  to  insult,  desired  them  to 

ake  earth  and  water  from  thence     This,  they  probably  did 

ty,  but  m  perseverence  and  despair. 
Nor  were  the  Athenians  content  with  this  outraee    but 

Son  ?o'V°  r"'?""  '"^  ^&-«-«.who,by  abafe'sul 
mission  to  the   Persian  power,  had  betrayed  thf  common 


4S 


THE  HISTORY 


cause  of  Greece.  They  accordingly  represented  the  affair  to 
the  Spartans,  with  all  its  aggravating  circumstances,  and 
heightened  with  that  eloquence  for  which  they  were  famous 
Before  such  judges,  it  was  not  likely  that  cowardice  or  timi- 
dity  would  find  many  defenders  :  the  Spartans  immediately 
gayc  judgment  against  the  people  of  iEgina,  and  sent  Cleo- 
menes,  one  of  their  kings,  to  apprehend  the  authors  of  so 
base  a  concession. 

The  people  of  iKgina,  however,  refused  to  deliver  them, 
ixider  pretence  that  Cleomenes  came  without  his  colleague! 
This  colleague  was  Demaratus,  who  had  himself  secretly  fur- 
nished them  Avith  that  excuse.  As  soon  as  Cleomenes  had  re- 
turned to  Sparta,  in  order  to  be  revenged  on  Demaratus,  for 
thus  counteracting  the  demands  of  his  country,  he  endeavour- 
ed to  get  him  deposed,  as  not  being  of  the  royal  family.  In 
fact,  Demaratus  was  born  only  seven  months  after  marriage, 
and  this  was  supposed,  by  many,  to  be  a  sufficient  proof  of 
his  being  illegitimate. 

This  accusation,  therefore,  being  revived,  the  Pythian  ora- 
cle was  appointed  to  determine  the  controversy,  and  the  priest- 
ess being  privately  suborned  by  Cleomenes,  an  answer  was 
given  against  his  colleagues,  just  as  he  had  dictated.  Dema- 
ratus, being  thus  declared  illegitimate,  and  unable  to  endure 
so  gross  an  injury,  banished  himself  from  his  country,  and 
retired  to  Darius ;  who  received  him  with  great  friendship, 
and  gave  him  a  considerable  settlement  in  Persia. 

He  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  Leotychide?  ;  who,  con- 
curring  with  the  views  of  Cleomenes,  punished  the  jEgine- 
tans,  by  placing  ten  of  the  most  guilty  citizens  in  the  hands  of 
the  Athenians :  while  Cleomenes,  some  time  after,  being  de- 
tected  of  having  suborned  the  priestess,  slew  himself,  in  a  fit 
of  despair. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  iEginetans  complained  of  the  se- 
verity of  their  treatment;  but,  finding  no  likelihood  of  redress, 
they  resolved  to  obtain  that  justice  by  force,  which  was  refused 
to  their  supplications.  Accordingly,  they  intercepted  an  Athe- 
nian ship,  which,  in  pursuance  of  an  annual  custom,ever  since 
vhe  limes  of  Theseus,  was  going  to  Delos,  to  offer  sacrifice 
This  produced  a  naval  war  between  these  two  states:  in  which 
after  a  variety  of  fortunes,  the  jEginetans  were  worsted,  and 
the  Athenians  gained  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas. 

Thus,  these  civil  discords,  which  seemed,  at  first,  to  favour 
ihe  designs  of  the  common  enemy,  tunied  out  to  the  genera) 
advantage  of  Greece.     The  Athenians,  acquiring  great  pow 
er  at  sta,  were  out  in  a  capacity  of  facing  the  Persian  fleets 


OF  GREECE. 


49 


I* 


i 


•rd  of  cutting  off  those  supplies  which  were  continually  car- 
rying to  their  armies  on  land. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  preparations,  on  both  sides,  for  a 
general  war,  were  carried  on  with  the  greatest  animosity  and 
despatch.  Darius  sent  away  his  generals,  Datis.  and  Arta- 
phernes,  whom  he  had  appointed  in  the  room  of  Mardonius, 
to  what  he  supposed  a  certain  conquest.  They  were  furnish- 
ed with  a  fleet  of  six  hundred  ships,  and  an  army  of  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  men :  their  instructions  were,  to 
give  up  Athens  and  Eretria,  a  little  city  which  had  joined  in 
the  league  against  him,  to  be  plundered ;  to  burn  all  the  houses 
and  temples  of  both,  and  to  lead  away  all  the  inhabitants  into 
slavery.  The  country  was  to  be  laid  desolate,  and  the  army 
was  provided  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  chains  and  fetters, 
for  binding  the  conquered  nations. 

To  oppose  this  formidable  invasion,  the  Athenians  had 
only  their  courage,  their  animosity,  their  dread  of  slavery, 
their  discipline,  and  about  ten  thousand  men.  Their  civil 
commotions  with  the  other  states  of  Greece,  had  given  them 
a  spiri<:  of  war  and  stratagem,  while  the  genius  of  their  citi- 
zens, continually  excited  and  exercised,  had  arrived  at  its 
highest  pitch,  and  fitted  them  for  every  danger. 

Athens  had  long  been  refining  in  all  those  arts,  which 
qualify  a  state  to  extend,  or  to  enjoy  conquest.  Every  citizen 
was  a  statesman  and  a  general,  and  every  soldier  considered 
himself  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  his  country.  But,  in  this 
little  state,  from  which  first  flowed  all  those  improvements 
that  have  since  adorned  and"  civilized  society,  there  were,  at 
that  time,  three  men  who  were  considered  as  superior  to  all 
the  rest ;  all  remarkable  for  their  abilities  in  war,  and  their 
mtegrity  in  peace ;  for  those  qualifications  that  can  advance 
the  glory  of  states,  or  procure  the  happiness  of  the  individual. 

Of  these,  Miltiades,  as  being  the  most  experienced,  was, 
at  that  time,  the  most  known.  He  was  the  son  of  Cimon,  and 
nephew  of  Miltiades,  an  illustrious  Athenian,  who  accepted 
the  government  of  Doloncy,  a  people  of  the  Thfacian  Cher 
sonesus.  Old  Miltiades  dying  without  issue,  he  was  succeed- 
ed in  his  government  by  Stesagoras,  his  nephew;  and  he  al 
so  dying,  young  Miltiades  was  chosen  as  his  successor. 

He  was  appointed  to  that  government,  the  same  year  tha» 
Darius  undertook  his  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the  Scy- 
thians. He  was  obliged  to  attend  that  prince  as  far  as  the  Isther, 
with  what  shipping  he  was  able  to  supply;  but,  ever  eager  to 
throw  off  the  Persian  yoke,  it  was  he  who  advised  ♦he  lonians 
to  destroy  the  bridge,  and  leave  the  army  of  Darius  to  its  fate 
When  the  affairs  of  the  continent  began  to  decline,  Milti 


30 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


51 


I 


ades,  rather  than  live  in  dependence,  resolved  to  return  onc« 
more  to  Athens;  and  thither  he  returned  with  five  ships, 
which  were  all  that  remained  of  his  shattered  fortune. 

At  the  same  time,  two  other  citizens,  younger  than  Milti 
ades,  began  to  distinguish  themselves  at  Athens, — Aristides 
and  Themistoclcs.    These  were  of  very  different  dispositions ; 
but,  from  this  difference,  resulted  the  greatest  advantage  tJ 
their  country. 

Themistoclcs  was  naturally  inclined  to  a  popular  govern 
ment,  and  omitted  nothing  that  could  render  him  agreeable  tc 
the  people,  or  gain  him  friends.  His  complaisance  was  bound 
less,  and  his  desire  to  oblige  sometimes  outstepped  the  bounds 
of  duty.  His  partiality  was  often  conspicuous.  Somebody  talk 
ing  with  him  once  on  the  subject,  told  him  he  would  make  a« 
excellent  magistrate,  if  he  had  more  impartiality :  God  forbid, 
replied  he,  that  I  shmld  ever  sit  an  a  tribunal,  where  my  frienck 
should  find  no  more  favour,  than  strangers. 

Aristides  was  as  remarkable  forliis  justice  and  integrity 
Being  a  favourer  of  aristocracy,  in  imitation  of  Lycurgus,  he 
was  friendly,  but  never  at  the  expense  of  justice.  In  seeking 
honours,  he  always  declined  the  interest  of  his  friends,  lest 
they  should,  in  turn,  demand  his  interest,  when  his  duty  was 
to  be  impartial.  The  love  of  the  public  good  was  the  great 
spring  of  all  his  actions;  and,  with  that  in  view,  no  difficul- 
ties could  daunt  him,  no  success  or  elevation  exalt.  On  all 
occasions,  he  preserved  his  usual  calmness  of  temper,  being 
persuaded  that  he  was  entirely  his  country's,  and  very  little 
his  own.  One  day,  v/hen  an  actor  was  repeating  some  lines 
from  iEschylus,on  the  stage,  coming  to  a  passage  which  des- 
cribed  a  man  as  not  desiring  to  appear  honest,  but  to  be  so, 
the  whole  audience  cast  their  eyes  on  Aristides,  and  applied 
the  passage.  In  the  administration  of  public  offices,  his 
whole  aim  was  to  perform  his  duty,  without  any  thought  ol 
enriching  himself. 

Such,  were  the  characters  of  the  illustrious  Athenians  that 
led  the  councils  of  the  state,  when  Darius  turned  his  arms 
against  Greece.  They  inspired  their  fellow  citizens  with  a 
noble  confidence  in  the  justice  of  their  cause ;  and  made  all 
the  preparations  against  the  coming  invasion,  that  prudence 
and  deliberate  valour  could  suggest. 

In  the  mean  time,  Datis  and  Artaphernes  led  on  their  nu- 
merous forces  towards  Europe ;  and,  after  having  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  islands  in  the  ^gean  sea,  without  any  op- 
position, they  turned  their  course  towards  Eretria,  that  city 
which  had  formerly  assisted  the  lonians  in  their  revoU.  The 
Eretrians,  now  driven  to  the  last  extremity,  saw  no  hopes  of 


meeting  their  enemy  in  the  field ;  wherefore,  they  sent  back 
four  thousand  men,  with  which  the  Athenians  had  supplied 
them,  and  resolved  patiently  to  stand  a  siege.  For  six  days, 
the  Persians  attempted  to  storm  the  city,  and  were  repulsed 
with  loss ;  but  on  the  seventh,  the  city,  by  the  treachery  of 
some  of  the  principal  inhabitants,  being  betrayed  into  their 
hands,  they  entered,  plundered,  and  burned  it.  The  inhabitants 
were  put  in  chains,  and  sent,  as  the  fruits  of  the  war,  to  the 
Persian  monarch ;  but  he,  contrary  to  their  expectations,  treat- 
ed them  with  great  lenity ;  and  gave  them  a  village  in  the 
country  of  Cissa,  for  their  residence ;  where  Apollonius  Tya- 
naeus  found  their  descendants  six  hundred  years  after. 

After  such  splendid  success  at  Eretria,  nothing  now  remain- 
ed, but  the  apparently  easy  conquest  of  Greece.  Hippias,  the 
expelled  tyrant  of  Athens,  still  accompanied  the  Persian  ar- 
my ;  and  led  them,  by  the  safest  marches,  into  the  heart  of 
the  country  :  at  length,  flushed  with  victory,  and  certain  of 
success,  he  conducted  them  to  the  plains  of  Marathon,  a  fer- 
tile valley,  but  ten  miles  distant  from  Athens.  From  thence, 
they  sent  to  summon  the  citizens,  acquainting  them  with  the 
fate  of  Eretria,  and  informing  them  that  not  a  single  inhabi- 
tant had  escaped  their  vengeance. 

But  the  Athenians  were  not  to  be  intimidated  by  any  vicini 
ty  of  danger.  They  had  sent,  indeed,  to  Sparta,  to  implore 
succour  against  the  common  enemy,  which  was  granted  with- 
out deliberation ;  but  the  superstition  of  the  times  rendered 
their  assistance  ineffectual ;  for  it  was  an  established  law 
among  the  Spartans,  not  to  begin  a  march  before  the  full  moon. 

They  applied  also  to  other  states  ;  but  they  were  too  much 
awed  by  the  power  of  Persia,  to  move  in  their  defence.  An 
army  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  exulting  in  the 
midst  of  their  country,  was  too  formidable,  for  a  weak  and 
jealous  confederacy  to  oppose.  The  inhabitants  of  Plataea 
alone  furnished  them  with  a  thousand  soldiers ;  and  they  were 
left  to  find  all  other  assistance  in  their  courage  and  their 
despair. 

In  this  extremity,  they  were  obliged  to  arm  their  slaves,  for 
the  safety  of  all ;  and  their  forces,  thus  united,  amounted  ti» 
but  ten  thousand  men.  Hoping,  therefore,  to  derive  from  their 
discipline  what  they  wanted  in  power,  they  placed  their  whole 
army  under  the  conduct  of  ten  generals,  of  whom  Miltiades 
was  chief;  and  of  these,  each  was  to  have  the  command  of 
the  troops  day  about,  in  regular  succession. 

An  arrangement,  in  itself  so  unpromising,  was  still  more 
embarrassed,  by  the  generals  themselves  disputing  whether 
they  should  hazard  a  battle,  or  wait  the  approach  of  theene- 

E2 


52 


THE  HlSTOKy 


my  within  theii  walls.     The  latter  opinion  seemed,  for  awhile- 
to  prevail :  it  was  urged,  that  it  would  be  rashness  itself  to 
face  so  powerful  and  well  appointed  an  army,  with  a  handful 
of  men.     It  was  alleged,  that  the  soldiers  would  gather  cour 
age  from  their  security  behind  the  walls ;  and  that  the  forces 
of  Sparta,  without,  might  make  a  diversion,  in  case  of  a  sal 
ly  from  withm.     Miltiades,  however,  declared  for  the  contra  ' 
ry  opinion ;  and  showed,  that  the  only  means  to  exalt  the 
courage  of  their  own  troops,  and  to  strike  a  terror  into  those 
of  the  enemy,  was  to  advance  boldly  towards  them,  with  an 
air  of  confidence  and  desperate  intrepidity. 

Aristides,  also,  strenuously  embraced  this  opinion,  and 
exerted  all  his  masculine  eloquence  to  bring  over  the  rest 
The  question  being  put,  when  the  suffrages  came  to  be 
taken,  the  opmions  were  equal  on  each  side  of  the  argument 
It  now,  therefore,  remained  for  Callimachus,  thepolemarch 
who  had  a  right  of  voting  as  well  as  the  ten  command- 
ers,  to  give  his  opinion,  and  decide  this  important  debate 
It  was  to  him,  Miltiades  addressed  himself,  with  the  utmost 
earnestness ;  alleging,  that  the  fate  of  his  country  was  now 
in  his  power;  that  his  single  vote  was  to  determine  whether 
his  country  should  be  enslaved,  or  free;  that  his  fame  might 
now,  by  a  smgle  word,  be  made  equal  to  that  of  Harmodiui 
and  Aristogiion,  who  were  the  authors  of  Athenian  liberty 
Thus  exhorted,  Callimachus  did  not  long  debate,  but  gave 
his  voice  m  favour  of  an  open  engagement ;  and  Miltiades, 
thus  seconded,  prepared  to  marshal  up  his  little  armv  fo7 
the  great  encounter. 

In  the  mean  time,  it  appeared,  that  so  many  leaders,  com 
manding  in  succession,  served  only  to  perplex  and  counteract 
each  other.  Aristides  perceived  that  the  command,  which 
changes  every  day,  must  be  incapable  of  projecting-  or  exe 
cuting  any  uniform  design:  he  therefore  gave  it  as  his  opin- 
ion,  that  It  was  necessary  to  invest  the  whole  power  in  one 
single  person ;  and  to  induce  bis  colleagues  to  conform,  he 
himself  set  the  first  example  of  resignation.  When  the  day 
came,  on  which  it  was  his  turn  to  command,  he  resigned  it 
to  Miltiades,  as  the  more  able  and  expei  ienced  general  - 
and  the  other  commanders,  warmed  by  so  generous  a  pre*' 
ference,  followed  his  example. 

Miltiades,  thus  invested  with  the  supreme  command,  which 
was  now  the  post  of  highest  danger,  like  an  experienced 
general,  endeavoured,  by  the  advantage  of  his  ground,  to 
make  up  his  deficiency  in  strength  and  numbers.  He  was 
sensible,  that,  by  extending  his  front  to  oppose  the  enemy 
ne  must  weaken  it  too  much,  and  give  tlieir  dense  \    dy  the 


or  GREECE 


53 


advantage.  He  therefore  drew  up  his  anny  at  the  foot  of  a 
mountain,  so  that  the  enemy  could  not  surround  him,  or 
charge  him  in  the  rear.  On  the  flanks,  on  each  side,  he  caus- 
ed larg^  trees  to  be  thrown  down,  which  were  cut  for  the 
purpose ;  and  these  served  to  guard  him  from  the  Persian 
cavalry,  which  generally  wheeled  on  the  flanks,  in  the  height 
of  an  engagement. 

Datis,  on  his  side,  was  sensible  of  this  advantageous  dis- 
position ;  but,  relying  on  his  superiority  of  numbers,  and  un- 
willing to  wait  till  the  Spartan  reinforcements  should  arrive, 
he  determined  to  engage. 

Now,  was  to  be  fought,  the  first  great  battle  in  which  the 
Greeks  had  ever  engaged.  It  was  not  like  any  of  their  for- 
mer civil  contests,  arising  from  jealousy,  and  terminating  in 
an  easy  accommodation :  it  was  a  battle  that  was  to  be  decid- 
ed with  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  earth,  with  the  most 
numerous  army  that  had  been  hitherto  seen  in  Europe.  This 
was  an  engagement  that  was  to  decide  the  liberty  oi  Greece ; 
and,  what  was  infinitely  of  greater  moment,  the  future  pro- 
gress of  refinement  among  mankind.  Upon  the  event  of 
this  battle,  depended  the  complexion  which  the  manners  of 
the  west  were  hereafter  to  assume ;  whether  it  was  to 
adopt  Asiatic  customs  with  its  conquerors,  or  to  go  on 
modelling  itself  upon  Grecian  refinements,  as  was  after- 
wards the  case.  This,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  one 
of  the  most  important  battles  that  ever  were  fought;  and 
the  event  was  as  little  to  be  expected,  as  the  success  was 
glorious. 

The  signal  was  no  sooner  given,  than  the  Athenians,  with- 
out waiting  the  Persian  onset,  rushed  in  upon  their  ranks, 
with  desperate  rapidity,  as  if  wholly  regardless  of  safety. 
The  Persians  regarded  this  first  step  of  the  Athenians  as  the 
result  of  madness,  and  were  more  inclined  to  despise  them  as 
maniacs,  than  oppose  them  as  soldiers — However,  they  were 
quickly  undeceived.  It  had  never  before  been  the  custom  of 
the  Greeks  to  run  on  with  this  headlong  valour ;  but,  compar- 
ing the  number  of  their  own  forces,  with  that  of  the  enemy, 
and  expecting  safety  only  from  rashness,  they  determined  to 
break  through  the  enemy's  ranks,  or  fall  in  the  attempt.  The 
greatness  of  their  danger  added  to  their  courage,  and  despair 
did  the  rest. 

The  Persians,  however,  stood  their  ground,  with  great  in- 
trepidity, and  the  battle  was  long,  fierce,  and  obstinate.  Mil- 
tiades had  made  the  wings  of  his  army  exceedingly  strong, 
but  had  left  the  main  body  more  weak,  and  not  so  deep. 
Having  but  ten  thousand  men  to  oppose  to  such  a  numerous 


04 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE 


55 


army,  he  supposed  the  victory  could  be  obtained  by  no  other 
means  than  strengthening  his  flanks ;  not  doubting,  that  when 
his  wings  were  once  victorious,  they  would  be  able  to  wheel 
upon  the  enemy's  main  body,  on  .either  side,  and  thus  put 
tht  m  easily  to  rout. 

The  Persians,  therefore,  finding  the  main  body  weakest, 
attacked  it  with  their  utmost  vigour.  It  was  in  vain,  that 
Aristides  and  Themistocles,  who  were  stationed  in  this  post 
of  danger,  endeavoured  to  keep  their  troops  to  the  charge. 
Courage  and  intrepidity  were  unable  tc  resist  the  torrent  of 
increasing  numbers;  so  that  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  give 
ground.  But,  in  the  mean  time,  the  wings  were  victorious  : 
and  now,  just  as  the  main  body  were  fainting  under  the  une- 
qual encounter,  these  came  up,  and  gave  them  time  to  recover 
•their  strength  and  order. 

Thus,  the  scale  of  victory  quickly  began  to  turn  in  their 
favour ;  and  the  Persians,  from  being  the  aggressors,  now  be- 
gan to  give  ground  in  turn,  and,  being  unsupported  by  fresh 
forces,  they  fled  to  their  ships,  with  the  utmost  precipitation. 
The  confusion  and  disorder  was  now  universal ;  the  Athenians 
followed  them  to  the  beach,  and  set  many  of  their  ships  on  fire. 
On  this  occasion,  it  was,  that  Cynaegyrus,  the  brother  of 
the  poet  iEschylus,  seized,  with  his  hand,  one  of  the  ships  that 
the  enemy  was  pushing  off  from  the  shore.  The  Persians 
withm,  seeing  themselves  thus  arrested,  cut  off  his  right  hand 
that  held  the  prow :  he  then  laid  hold  of  it  with  his  left 
which  they  also  cut  off;  at  last,  he  seized  it  with  his  teeth' 
and  in  that  manner  expired. 

Seven  of  the  enemy's  ships  were  taken,  above  six  thousand 
Persians  were  slain,  without  reckoning  those  Avho  were 
drowned  in  the  sea,  as  they  endeavoured  to  escape,  or  those 
who  were  consumed  when  the  ships  were  set  on  fire. 

Of  the  Greeks,  not  above  two  hundred  men  were  killed ; 
among  whom,  was  Callimachus,  who  gave  his  vote  for  bring- 
ing on  the  engagement.  Hippias,  who  was  the  chief  incen- 
diary of  the  war,  is  also  thought  to  have  fallen  in  this  battle  • 
though  some  say  he  escaped,  and  died  miserably  at  Lemnos! 
Such,  was  the  famous  battle  of  Marathon,  which  the  Per- 
sians were  so  sure  of  gaining,  that  they  had  brought  marble 
mto  the  field,  to  erect  a  trophy. 

Just  after  the  battle,  an  Athenian  soldier,  whose  name  was 
Eucles,  still  covered  with  blood  and  wounds,  quitted  the  army 
and  ran  to  Athens,  to  carry  his  fellow-citizens  the  news  of  the 
victory.  His  strength  just  sufficed  to  reach  the  city;  and, 
throwing  himself  into  the  door  of  the  first  house,  he  utterea 
Ihrec  wortJ^,  Rejoice,  tve  triumph,  and  instantly  expired. 


f 


t 


^ 


While  a  part  rf  the  army  marched  forward  to  Athens,  to 
jii'Otect  it  from  the  attempts  of  the  enemy,  Aristides  reniainetl 
on  the  field  of  battle,  to  guard  the  spoil  and  the  prisoners ; 
and,  although  gold  and  silver  were  scattered  about  the  enemy's 
deserted  camp,  in  abundance,  though  their  tents  and  galleys 
were  full  of  rich  furniture  and  sumptuous  apparel,  he  would 
not  permit  any  of  it  to  be  embezzled,  but  reserved  it,  as  a  com- 
mon reward,  for  all  who  had  any  share  in  obtaining  the  victory. 

Two  thousand  Spartans,  also,  whose  laws  would  not  permit 
them  to  march  until  the  full  of  the  moon,  now  came  into  tlu 
field ;  but  the  action  being  over  the  day  before,  they  had  an 
opportunity  only  of  paying  due  honours  to  those  who  gained 
so  glorious  a  victory,  and  to  bring  back  the  news  to  Sparta. 
Of  the  marble  the  Persians  had  brought  with  them,  the  Athe- 
nians made  a  trophy ;  being  carved  by  Phidias  into  a  statue, 
in  honour  of  the  goddess  Nemesis,  who  had  a  temple  near 
the  field  of  battle. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Persian  fleet,  instead  of  sailing  di- 
rectly back  to  Asia,  made  an  attempt  to  surprise  Athens,  be- 
fore the  Greek  forces  could  arrive  from  Marathon.  But  the 
latter  had  the  precaution  to  move  directly  thither;  and  pei- 
formed  their  march  with  so  much  expedition,  that,  though 
it  was  forty  miles  from  Marathon,  they  arrived  there  in  one 
day.  In  this  manner,  the  Greeks  not  only  expelled  theii  ene- 
mies, but  confirmed  their  security. 

By  this  victory,  the  Grecians  were  tanght  to  know  their 
own  strength,  and  not  to  tremble  before  an  enemy,  terribl© 
only  in  name.  This  taught  them,  through  the  whole  of  suc- 
ceeding ages,  to  imitate  their  ancestors  with  an  ardent  emu- 
lation, and  inspired  them  with  a  wish  not  to  degenerate  from 
the  Grecian  glory. 

Those  Athenians  that  were  slain  in  battle,  had  all  the  hon 
our  immediately  paid  them,  that  was  due  to  their  merit.  Il- 
lustrious monuments  were  erected  to  them,  in  the  very  place 
where  the  battle  was  fought ;  upon  which,  their  names,  and 
the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  were  inscribed.  There  were 
set  up  three  distinct  sets  of  monuments ;  one  for  the  Atheni' 
ans,  one  for  the  Plataeans,  and  a  third  for  the  slaves  who  had 
been  enrolled  into  their  troops  upon  that  urgent  occasion. 

But  their  gratitude  to  Miltiades,  spoke  a  nobleness  of  mind, 
that  far  surpassed  expensive  triumphs, or  base  adulation.  Sen- 
sible that  his  merits  were  too  great  for  money  to  repay,  they 
caused  a  picture  to  be  painted,  by  Polygnotus,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  artists ;  where  Miltiades  was  represented,  at  the 
head  of  the  ten  commanders,  exhorting  the  soldiers,  and  set- 
ting them  an  example  of  their  duty.     This  picture  was  pre 


I 


M 


THE  HISTORY 


An  emulation  seemed  to  take  place  in  everv  rank  nf  r.fi. 
Polygnotus  yaiued  l>imself  so  muc^h  upon  the  h^n^r  of  bellt 

...  K&Sf  i- te--  -^-  ^"  -  -^. 

to  take  every  ODDortuni^  of  m"^.-f-     freedom,  were  willing 
merit  they  hadTucHXr     "  '''"^  ^  ^"""''  '^°™  ^'^"^^ 

an?sTh!ttSirJ\he  P?"'^  ^''P^*°  P""'^''  '"ose  isl- 
ed  the  siege  of  Cos  «non  »?'.'*"  ""^^''"V  ''"•*  ''''ving  rais. 
enemy's  flfet    h^t^?  '  ^T  *  "^'^^  ""^P""  "^  ">«  arrival  of  the 

was  aLus:d  by  one  x^trTr'""^  *°  ^*''^"^'  -•>-•= "« 
Persia.     As  he  Zs  not  i7/    '  ^.^^^'^S  taken  a  bribe  from 

being  coniined  trws  b  d  b„  I'mT.  l^^T  ^'^  '''"«'' 
accusation  prevailed  aeains^  him  ,  ,^  ^^^  '^  ^^'■""'  »'« 
lose  his  life  ^  ''"">  *"^  '>e  ^a*  condemned  tv 

tence  was  pronounced  aeainst  him  k  .  u^  r  "*  ^'''^  ^^'*' 
were  such  as  to  have  t hff  ^     •  k       '  ^''^^  ^''  ^^™^^  services 

?ut  an  end  to  his  life  and  misfortunes  ^''"^'■'"''  ""'' 

sedX"^!^;:on°?hi:o:c:sTor  'a'  »■  ™^  ^•^-^  r"^'  ''•?-'- 

not  permit  the  body  of  MUt  adet  to  h  ''"^"i'i^^  "ty  woul.l 

.a.e.  a^d  p.ocuSirfiKi^;i-— s  Lzri^ 


^ 


OF  GREECE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


57 


from  the  Death  of  Miltiades,  to  the  Retreat  of  Xerxes  out  oj  Greect, 

The  misfortunes  of  Darius  served  only  to  increase  his  re- 
sentment, and  give  spirit  to  his  perseverance.  Finding  the  ill 
success  of  his  ge!\erals,  he  resolved  to  try  the  war  in  person  : 
and  despatched  orders,throughout  his  whole  dominions,for 
fresh  preparations.  However,  a  revolt  in  Egypt  for  a  while 
averted  his  resentment ;  a  contest  among  his  sons,  about  nomi- 
nating his  successor,  still  farther  retarded  his  designs ;  and, 
at  last,  when  he  had  surmounted  every  obstacle,  and  was  just 
preparing  to  take  a  signal  vengeance,  his  death  put  an  end  to 
all  his  projects,  and  gave  Greece  a  longer  time  for  preparation. 

Xerxes,  his  son,  succeeded  ;  who,  with  the  empire,  inherit- 
ed also  his  father's  animosity  against  Greece.  Having  carried 
on  a  successful  expedition  against  Egypt,  he  expected  the  same 
good  fortune  in  Europe.  Confident  of  Tictory,  he  did  not 
choose,  he  said,  for  the  future  to  buy  the  figs  of  Attica ;  he 
would  take  possession  of  the  country,  and  thus  have  figs  of 
his  own.  . 

But,  before  he  engaged  in  an  enterprise  df  that  importance 
he  thought  proper  to  assemble  his  council,  and  collect  the 
opinions  of  the  principal  officers  of  his  court.  In  his  speech, 
M  opening  the  council,  he  evidently  showed  his  desire  of  re- 
venge, and  his  passion  for  military  glory.  The  best  way, 
therefore,  to  pay  court  to  this  young  monarch,  was  by  flatter- 
ing him  in  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  giving  his  impetuous 
aims  the  air  of  studied  designs.  Mardonius,  grown  neither 
wiser  nor  less  ambitious  b^  his  own  bad  success,  began  by  ex- 
tolling Xerxes,  above  all  other  kings  that  had  gone  before 
him  :  he  urged  the  indispensible  necessity  of  avenging  the 
dishonour  done  to  the  Persian  name;  he  represented  the 
Greeks  as  cowards,  that  were  accidentally  successful;  and 
was  firmly  of  opinion,  that  they  would  never  more  stand  even 
the  hazard  of  a  battle. 

A  discourse  which  so  nearly  coincided  with  his  own  senti- 
ments, was  very  pleasing  to  the  young  monarch  ;  and  the  rest 
of  the  company,  by  their  looks  and  their  silence,  seemed  to 
applaud  his  impetuosity.  But  Artabanus,  the  king's  uncle, 
who  had  long  learned  to  reverence  courage,  even  in  an  ene- 
my, and  presuming  upon  his  age  and  experience  to  speak  his 
real  sentiments,  rose,  with  an  honest  fp^edom,  to  represent 
the  intended  expedition  in  its  true  light. 

"  Permit  me.  Sir,"  said  he,  "  to  deliver  my  sentiments,  on 
this  occasion,  with  a  liberty  suitable  to  my  age,  and  your  in 


58 


THE  HISTORY 


r 

I 


terest.  When  Darius,  your  father  and  my  brother,  lirst 
thought  of  making  war  against  the  Scythians,  I  used  all  my 
endeavours  to  divert  him  from  it.  The  people  you  are  going- 
to  attack,  arc  infinitely  more  formidable  thaji  they.  If  the 
Athenians,  alone,  could  defeat  the  numerous  army  command- 
ed by  Darius  and  Artaphcrnes,  what  ought  we  to  expect  from 
an  opposition  of  all  the  states  of  Greece  united  ? 

"  Vou  design  to  pass  from  Asia  into  Europe,  by  laying  a 
bridge  over  the  sea.  But,  what  if  the  Athenians  should  ad- 
vance, and  destroy  this  bridge,  and  so  prevent  our  return  ? 
Let  us  not  expose  ourselves  to  such  dangers,  as  we  have  no 
sufficient  motives  to  compel  us  to  face  them ;  at  least,  let  us 
take  time  to  reflect  upon  it.  When  we  have  maturely  de- 
liberated upon  this  aifair,  whatever  happens  to  be  the  success, 
we  have  nothing  to  regret.  Precipitation  is  imprudent,  and 
is  usually  unsuccessful.  Above  all,  do  not  suffer  yourself, 
great  prince,  to  be  dazzled  with  the  splendour  of  imaginary 
glory.  The  highest  and  the  most  lofty  trees,  have  the  most 
reason  to  dread  the  thunder.  God  loves  to  humble  the  osten- 
tatious, and  reserves  to  himself  alone  the  pride  of  importance 
As  for  you,  Mardonius,  who  so  earnestly  urge  this  expedi 
tion,  if  it  must  be  so,  lead  it  forward.  But  let  the  kinp-, 
whose  life  is  dear  to  us  all,  return  back  to  Persia. 

"  In  the  mean  time,  let  your  children  and  mine  be  given  up 
as  a  pledge,  to  answer  for  the  success  of  the  war.     If  the  is- 
sue be  favourable,  I  consent  that  mine  be  put  to  death;  but 
if  it  prove  otherwise,  as  I  well  foresee,  then  I  desire  that  you 
and  your  children  may  meet  the  reward  of  rashness." 

This  advice,  which  was  rather  sincere  than  palatable,  was 
received,  by  Xei-xes,  with  a  degree  of  rage  and  resentment. 
**  Thank  the  gods,"  cried  he,  "  that  thou  art  my  father's  bro- 
ther :  were  it  not  for  that,  thou  shouldst  this  moment  meet 
the  just  rev,  ard  of  thy  audacious  behaviour.  But  you  shall 
have  your  punishment ;  remain  here  behind,  among  the  wo 
men :  these,  you  but  too  much  resemble,  in  your  cowardice  anc' 
fear.  Stay  here,  while  I  march  at  the  head  of  my  troops,  when 
my  duty  and  glory  call  me." 

Upon  cooler  thoughts,  however,  Xerxes  seemed  better  re 
conciled  to  his  uncle's  opinion.  When  the  first  emotions  of 
his  anger  were  over,  and  he  had  time  to  reflect,  on  his  pillow 
upon  the  different  counsels  that  were  given  him,  he  confes- 
sed  the  rashness  of  his  former  rebuke ;  and  ingeniously  as 
cribed  it  to  the  heat  of  youth,  and  the  ardour  of  passion.  Ht 
offered  to  come  over  to  his  opinion ;  at  the  same  time  assur 
jng  the  council,  that,  from  his  dreams,  he  had  every  cncoui 
agement  to  proceed  with  this  expedition. 


OF,  G.^ECE. 


59 


So  much  condescension,  on  the  one  hand,  and  such  favour- 
able omens  on  the  other,  determined  the  whole  council  to 
second  his  inclinations.  They  fell  prostrate  before  him, 
eager  to  show  their  submission  and  their  joy.  A  monarch 
thus  surrounded  by  flatterers,  all  striving  which  should  most 
gratify  his  pride  and  passions,  could  not  long  continue  good, 
though  naturally  inclined  to  virtue. 

Xerxes,  therefore,  seems  a  character  thus  ruined  by  power, 
exerting  his  natural  justice  and  wisdom,  at  short  intervals ; 
but  then  giving  way  to  the  most  culpable  and  extravagant 
excesses.  Thus,  the  council  of  Artabanus  being  rejected, 
and  that  of  Mardonius  favourably  received,  the  most  exten 
sive  preparations  were  made  for  carrying  on  the  war. 

The  greatness  of  these  preparations  seemed  to  show  the 
high  sense  which  the  Persians  had  of  their  enemy.  Xerxes, 
that  he  might  omit  nothing  conducive  to  success,  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians,  who  were,  at  that 
time  the  most  potent  people  of  the  West ;  with  M'hom,  it 
\vas  stipulated,  that,  while  the  Persian  forces  should  attack 
Greece,  the  Carthaginians  should  awe  the  Greek  colonies, 
dispersed  over  the  Medite^-r^nean,  from  comin?  to  their  as 
distance. 

I'hus,  having  drained  all  the  East  to  compose  his  own  ar- 
my, and  the  West  to  supply  that  of  the  Carthaginians   .     ^ 
under  Amilcar,  he  set  out  from  Susa,  in  order  to  enter    ;,  ^' 
ttpon  thi*  war,  ten  years  after  the  battle  of  Marathon.      ^^^^' 

Sardis  was  the  place  where  the  various  nations  that  were 
compelled  to  his  banner,  were  to  assemble.  His  fleet  was 
to  advance,  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  towards  the 
Hellespont. 

As  this  monarch  passed  on,  in  his  march  to  the  placeW 
general  destination,  he  went  through  Cappadocia,  crossed  the 
river  Halys,  and  came  to  Calene,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  near  the 
source  of  the  river  Meander.  He  was  there  met  by  Pythias, 
a  Lydian  prince,  who,  by  the  most  extreme  parsimony  and 
oppression,  had  become,  next  to  Xerxes,  the  most  opulent 
man  in  all  the  Persian  empire.  His  treasures,  however,  were 
not  sufficient  to  buy  off  the  attendance  of  his  eldest  son,  whom 
he  requested  might  be  permitted  to  remain  with  him,  as  he 
was  old  and  helpless.  He  had  before  offered  his  money,  which 
amounted  to  about  four  millions  sterling,  for  the  monarch's 
use;  but  this,  Xerxes  had  refused;  and  now,  finding  the 
young  prince  willing  to  remain  with  his  father,  he  was  so 
enraged, that  he  commanded  him  to  be  put  to  death,  before 
his  father's  eyes.  Then,  causing  the  dead  body  to  be  cut  in 
two,  and  one  part  >f  it  tc  be  pi  ced  on  the  right,  and  the  other 


60 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECf:. 


61 


I 


on  the  left,  he  made  the  whole  army  pass  between  them,  to 
terrify  them  from  a  reluctance  to  engage,  by  his  example. 

From  Phrygia,  Xerxes  marched  to  Sardis,  and,  in  the 
opening  of  spring,  directed  his  march  down  towards  the 
Hellespont,  where  his  fleet  lay  in  all  its  pomp,  expecting  his 
arrival.  Here,  he  was  desirous  of  taking  a  survey  of  all  his 
foices,  which  composed  an  army  never  equalled,  either  before 
or  since.  It  was  composed  of  the  most  powerful  nations  of 
the  East,  and  of  people  scarcely  known  to  posterity,  excep* 
by  name. 

The  remotest  India  contributed  its  supplies,  while  the 
coldest  tracts  of  Scythia  sent  their  assistance;  Medes,  Per 
sians,  Bactrians,  Lydians,  Assyrians,  Hyrcanians,  and  a  hun- 
dred other  countries,  of  various  forms,  complexions,  languages, 
dresses,  and  armies.  The  land  army.,  which  he  brought  out 
of  Asia,  consisted  of  seventeen  hundred  thousand  foot,  and 
eighty  thousand  horse.  Three  hundred  thousand  more  that 
were  added,  upon  crossing  the  Hellespont,  made  all  his  land 
forces  together  amount  to  above  two  millions  of  men. 

His  fleet,  when  it  set  out  from  Asia,  consisted  of  twelve 
hundred  and  seven  vessels,  each  carrying  two  hundred  men. 
The  Europeans  augmented  his  fleet  with  a  hundred  and  twen- 
ty vessels,  each  of  which  carried  two  hundred  men.  Besides 
•hese,  there  were  two  thousand  smaller  vessels,  fitted  for  car- 
rying provisions  and  stores :  the  men  contained  in  these,  with 
the  former,  amounted  to  six  hundred  thousand ;  so  vhat  the 
whole  army  might  be  said  to  amount  to  two  million?  and  a 
half,  which,  with  the  women,  slaves,  and  suttlers,  alwa>3  ac 
companying  a  Persian  army,  might  make  the  whole  above 
five  millions  of  souls;  a  number,  if  rightly  conducted,  capa- 
ble of  overturning  the  greatest  monarchy, but  being  command- 
ed by  presumption  and  ignorance,  they  only  served  to  obslntc* 
and  embarrass  each  other. 

jL^rd  of  so  many  and  such  various  subjects,  Xerxes  fount; 
a  pleasure  in  reviewing  his  forces,  and  was  desirous  of  be- 
holding a  naval  engagement;  of  which,  he  had  not  hitherto 
been  a  spectator.  To  this  end,  a  throne  was  erected  for 
him  upon  an  eminence ;  and,  in  that  situation,  beholding  all 
the  earth  covered  with  his  troops,  and  all  the  sea  crowded 
With  his  vessels,  he  felt  a  secret  joy  difl'use  itself  through  his 
frame,  from  the  consciousness  of  his  own  superior  power. 

But  all  the  workings  of  this  monarch's  mind  were  in  the 
extreme  :  a  sudden  sadness  took  place  of  his  pleasure ;  and 
dissolving  in  a  shower  of  tears,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a  re- 
flection that  not  one  of  so  many  thousand  would  be  alive  a 
«kV:^dred  years  after 


Artabanus,  who  neglected  no  opportunity  of  moralising 
upon  every  occurrence,  took  this  occasion  to  discourse  with 
him  upon  the  shortness  and  miseries  of  human  life.  Find- 
ing this  more  distant  subject  attended  to,  he  spoken  more 
closely  to  the  present  occasion,  insinuated  his  doubts  of  the 
success  of  the  expedition ;  urged  the  many  inconveniences- 
the  army  had  to  suffer,  if  not  from  the  enemy,  at  least  from 
their  own  numbers.  He  alleged,  that  plagues,  famine,  and 
confusion,  were  the  necessary  attendants  of  such  ungoverna- 
ble multitudes  by  land,  and  that  empty  fame  was  the  only 
reward  of  success. 

But  it  was  now  too  late,  to  turn  this  young  monarch  from 
his  purpose.  Xerxes  informed  this  monitor,  that  great  ac- 
tions were  always  attended  with  proportionate  danger;  and, 
that  if  his  predecessors  had  observed  such  scrupulous  and 
timorous  rules  of  conduct,  the  Persian  empire  would  never 
have  attained  to  its  present  height  of  glory. 

Xerxes,  in  the  mean  time,  had  given  orders  for  building 
a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Hellespont,  for  the  transporting 
his  army  into  Europe.  This  narrow  strait,  which  now  goes 
oy  the  name  of  the  Dardanelles,  is  nearly  an  English  mile 
over.  But,  soon  after  the  completion  of  this  work,  a  violent 
atorm  arising,  the  whole  was  broken  and  destroyed,  and  the 
labour  was  to  be  undertaken  anew. 

The  fury  of  Xerxes,  upon  this  disappointment,  was  attend 
ed  with  equal  extravagance  and  cruelty.  His  vengeance  knew 
no  l30unds ;  the  workmen  who  had  undertaken  the  task,  had 
their  heads  struck  off",  by  his  order ;  and,  that  the  sea  itself, 
also,  might  know  its  duty,  he  ordered  it  to  be  lashed,  as  a 
dehnquent,  and  a  pair  of  fetters  to  be  thrown  into  it,  to  curb 
its  future  irregularities. 

Thus,  having  given  vent  to  his  absurd  resentment,  two 
bridges  were  ordered  to  be  built,  in  the  place  of  the  former; 
one  for  the  aiTny  to  pass  over,  and  ^he  other  for  the  baggage 
and  beasts  of  burthen.  The  workmen,  now  warned  by  the 
fate  of  their  predecessors,  gave  their  labours  greater  stabili- 
ty: they  placed  three  hundred  and  sixty  vessels  across  the 
strait,  some  of  them  having  three  banks  of  oars,  and  others 
fifty  oars  a-piece.  They  then  cast  anchors  into  the  water, 
on  both  sides,  in  order  to  fix  these  vessels  against  the  violence 
of  the  winds  and  the  current.  They  then  drove  large  piles 
into  the  earth,  with  huge  rings  fastened  to  them,  to  which 
were  tied  six  vast  cables,  which  went  over  each  of  the  two 
oridges.  Over  all  these,  they  laid  trunks  of  trees,  cut  pur 
posely  for  that  use ;  and  flat  boats  again  over  them,  fastened 
and  joined  together,  so  as  to  serve  for  a  floor  or  solid  bottom. 


9ii 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE 


63 


When  the  whole  work  was  thus  completed,  a  day  was  ap- 
pointed for  their  passing  over;  and,  as  soon  as  the  first  rays 
of  the  sun  began  to  appear,  sweet  odours  of  all  kinds  were 
abundantly  scattered  over  the  new  work,  and  the  way  was 
strewed  with  myrtle. 

At  the  same  time,  Xerxes  poured  out  libations  into  the 
sea,  and  turning  his  face  towards  the  east,  worshipped  that 
bright  luminary,  which  is  the  god  of  the  Persians.  Then, 
throwing  the  vessel,  which  had  held  his  libation,  into  the  sea, 
together  with  a  golden  cup  and  Persian  scimitar,  he  went 
forward,  and  gave  orders  for  the  army  to  follow. 

This  immense  train  were  no  less  than  seven  days  and  seven 
nights  passing  over,  while  those  who  were  appointed  to 
conduct  the  march,  quickened  the  troops,  by  lashing  them 
along;  for  the  soldiers  of  the  East,  at  that  Ume,  and  to  this 
very  day,  are  treated  like  slaves. 

This  immense  army  having  landed  in  Europe,  and  being 
joined  by  the  several  nations  that  acknowledged  the  Persian 
power,  Xerxes  prepared  for  marching  directly  forward  into 
Greece.  Besides  the  generals  of  every  nation,  who  each 
commanded  the  troops  of  their  respective  countries,  the  land 
army  was  commanded  by  six  Persian  generals,  to  whom  all 
the  rest  were  subordinate.  These  were,  Mardonius,  Tirinta- 
techmus,  Smerdonius,  Massistus,  Gergis,  and  Megabyzus. 
Ten  thousand  Persians,  who  were  called  the  Immortal  Band, 
were  commanded  by  Hydarnes,  while  the  cavalry  and  the 
fleet  had  their  own  respective  commanders. 

Besideg  those  who  were  attached  to  Xerxes,  from  princi- 
pie,  there  were  some  Greek  princes,  who,  either  from  mo- 
tives of  interest  or  fear,  followed  him  in  this  expedition 
Among  these,  were,  Artemisia,  queen  of  Hallicarnassus,  who 
after  the  death  of  her  husband,  governed  the  kingdom  for  her 
son.  She  had  brought,  indeed,  but  a  trifling  succour  of  five 
ships,  but  she  made  ample  amends  by  her  superior  prudence, 
courage,  and  conduct. 

Of  this  number,  also,  was  Demaratus,  the  exiled  king  of 
Sparta,  who,  resenting  the  indignity  put  upon  him  by  his  sub- 
jects, took  refuge  in  the  Persian  court,  an  indignant  spectator 
of  its  luxuries  and  slavish  submission.  Being  one  day  asked 
by  Xerxes,  if  he  thought  the  Grecians  would  dare  to  wait 
his  approach,  or  would  venture  an  engagement  with  armies 
that  drank  up  whole  rivers  in  their  march.  "  Alas !  great 
prince,"  cried  Demaratus,  "  Greece,  from  the  beginning  ol 
time,  has  been  trained  up  and  accustomed  to  poverty ;  but 
the  defects  of  that  are  amply  recompensed  by  virtue,  whick^ 
wisdom  cultivates,  and  the  laws  support  in  vigour.    As  fo 


l*' 


the  Lacedaemonians,  as  they  have  been  bred  up  in  freedom, 
they  can  never  submit  to  be  slaves. 

"  Though  all  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  should  forsake  them, 
though  they  should  be  reduced  to  a  band  of  a  thousand  men, 
yet  still  they  would  fact  every  danger,  to  preserve  what  they 
hold  dearer  than  life.  They  have  laws  which  they  obey,  with 
more  implicit  reverence  than  you  are  obeyed  by  your  subjects. 
By  these  laws,  they  are  forbidden  to  fly  in  battle,  and  they 
have  only  the  alternative  to  conquer  or  to  die." 

Xerxes  was  not  offended  with  the  liberty  of  Demaratus; 
but,  smiling  at  his  blunt  sincerity,  ordered  his  army  to  march 
forward,  while  he  directed  his  fleet  to  follow  him  along  the 
coast,  and  to  regulate  its  course  by  his  motions.  But,  ir 
doubling  the  cape  of  Mount  Athos,  many  shipwrecks  were 
sustained ;  he  was  resolved  to  cut  a  passage  through  that 
neck  of  land  which  joined  the  mountain  to  the  continent,  and 
thus  give  his  shipping  a  shorter  and  safer  passage. 

This  canal  was  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  and  hollowed  out 
from  a  high  mountain ;  it  required  immense  labour  to  per- 
form so  great  a  work,  but  his  numbers  and  his  ambition  were 
sufficient  to  surmount  all  difficulties. 

To  urge  on  the  undertaking  the  faster,  he  treated  his  la- 
bourers with  the  greatest  severity,  while,  with  all  the  osten- 
tation of  an  eastern  prince,  he  gave  his  commands  to  the 
mountain  to  sink  before  him: — At/ios,  thou  proud  aspiring 
mountain,  that  liftest  up  thy  head  unto  the  Iieavens,  be  not  so  auda- 
cious as  to  put  obstacles  in  my  way.  If  thou  givest  them  that  op- 
position, I  will  cut  thee  level  to  the  plain,  and  throw  thee  headlong 
into  the  sea. 

In  this  manner,  he  pursued  his  course  without  any  mter- 
ruption,  every  nation  near  which  he  approached,  sending  him 
all  the  marks  of  homage  and  subjection.  Wherever  he  came, 
he  found  provisions  and  refreshments  prepared  before  hand, 
pursuant  to  the  orders  he  had  given.  Every  city  he  arrived 
at,  exhausted  itself  in  giving  him  the  most  magnificent  re- 
ception.   „ 

The  vast  expense  of  these  feasts  gave  a  poor  Thracian  an 
opportunity  of  remarking,  that  it  was  a  peculiar  favour  of 
the  gods,  that  Xerxes  could  eat  but  one  meal  a  day.  Thus, 
did  he  continue  his  march  through  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and 
Thessaly,  every  knee  bending  before  him,  till  he  came  to  the 
straits  of  Thermopylae,  where  he  first  found  an  army  pre- 
pared to  dispute  his  passage. 

This  army  was  a  body  of  Greeks,  led  on  by  Leonidas,  king 
of  Sparta,  who  had  been  sent  thither  to  oppose  him.  As  soon 
as  it  was  known,  in  Greece,  that  Xerxes  was  preparing  to  in- 

F2 


64 


THE  HISTORY 


vade  that  country,  and  that  an  army  of  millions  were  coming 
on,  with  determined  resolution,  to  ruin  it,  every  state  seemed 
differently  affected,  in  proportion  to  its  strength,  its  courage, 
or  its  situation. 

The  Sicilians  refused  their  aid,  being  kept  in  awe  by  Amil- 
car,  the  Carthaginian.  The  Corcyreans  pretended  they  were 
wind-bound,  and  would  not  let  their  ships  stir  from  the  har- 
bour. The  Cretons,  having  consulted  the  Delphic  oracle, 
absolutely  determined  to  remain  inactive.  The  Thessalians 
and  Macedonians,  from  their  situation,  were  obliged  to  sub- 
mit to  the  conqueror ;  so  that  no  states  were  found  bold  enough 
to  face  this  formidable  army,  but  Athens  and  Lacedaemon. 

These  states  had  received  intelligence  of  the  Persian  de- 
signs, from  Demaratus,  long  before  they  had  been  put  into 
execution.  They  had  also  sent  spies  to  Sardis,  in  order  to 
have  a  more  exact  information  of  the  number  and  quality  of 
the  enemy's  forces.  The  spies,  indeed,  were  seized,  bui 
Xerxes  ordered  them  to  be  conducted  through  his  army,  and 
to  give  an  exact  account  of  what  they  had  seen,  at  their  return 

They  had  sent  deputies  to  all  the  neighbouring  states,  tc 
awaken  their  ardour ;  to  apprise  them  of  their  danger,  and 
to  urge  the  necessity  of  fighting  for  their  common  safety 
But  all  their  remonstrances  were  vain ;  fear,  assuming  thf 
name  of  prudence,  offered  frivolous  excuses,  or  terms  which 
were  inadmissible.  Relying,  therefore,  on  their  own  strength, 
those  generous  states  resolved  to  face  the  danger,  with  joint 
forces,  and  conquer  or  fall  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  Having 
summoned  a  general  council  at  the  isthmus,  they  there  solemn- 
ly resolved  to  wave  all  private  quarrels  or  pretensions,  and 
join  against  the  common  danger. 

One  cannot,  without  astonishment  reflect  on  the  intrepidity 
of  the  Greeks,  who  determined  to  face  the  innumerable  army 
of  Xerxes,  with  such  disproportioned  forces.  All  their  forces 
joined  together,  amounted  only  to  eleven  thousand  two  hun 
dred  men.  But  they  were  all  soldiers,  bred  amidst  fatigue 
and  danger,  all  determined,  to  a  man,  either  to  conquer  or  die. 

Their  first  care,  however,  was  to  appoint  a  general.  It  was 
then,  that  the  most  able  and  experienced  captains,  terrified  at 
the  danger,  had  taken  the  resolution  of  not  presenting  them- 
selves as  candidates.  Epicydes,  indeed,  a  man  of  ignorance, 
avarice,  and  presumption,  was  ready  to  lead  them  on ;  but, 
under  his  guidance,  nothing  could  be  hoped  for  except  con 
fusion  and  disappointment.  In  this  pressing  juncture,  there 
fore,  ThemistocJes,  conscious  of  his  own  capacity,  and  warm- 
ed with  the  love  of  glory,  which  was  great  in  proportion  to 
danger,  resolved  to  use  every  art  to  get  himself  appointed  to 


OF  GREECE. 


^k 


\ 


the  command.  For  this  purpose,  he  used  all  his  interest,  ana 
even  distributed  bribes,  to  remove  his  competitor ;  and,  hav- 
ing gratified  the  avarice  of  Epycides,  which  was  his  ruling 
passion,  he  soon  found  himself  appointed  to  the  command, 
which  was  the  darling  object  of  his  ambition. 

But,  in  this  pressing  exigence,  it  was  incumbent  on  the 
Athenians  to  avail  themselves  of  every  person  that  might  be 
serviceable,  however  subject  he  might  be  to  their  resentment. 
There  were  many  useful  citizens,  whom  they  had,  on  some 
factious  discontents,  sent  into  banishment,  and  these  they  no^v 
repentingly  wished  to  restore. 

Among  this  number,  was  Aristides,  that  brave  and  just  man, 
who  had,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  upon  other  occasions, 
;>een  instrumental  in  gaining  their  victories,  and  who  had, 
upon  all  occasions,  improved  them,  by  the  disinterestedness 
and  integrity  of  his  example.  This  magistrate,  having  had 
many  contests  with  Themistocles,  who  was  his  rival  in  powei 
and  fame,  and  always  wished  to  supplant  him,  was  at  length 
condemned  to  go  into  banishment,  by  the  power  of  the  pre 
vailing  faction. 

It  was  on  that  occasion,  that  a  peasant,  who  could  not  write, 
and  did  not  know  Aristides  personally,*  applied  to  himself, 
and  desired  him  to  write  the  name  of  Aristides,  upon  the  shell, 
oy  which  his  vote  was  given  against  him.  "  Has  he  done  you 
any  wrong,"  said  Aristides,"  that  you  are  for  condemning  him, 
in  this  manner  ?"  "  No,"  replied  the  peasant,  "  b?it  I  hate  to 
hear  him  praised  for  his  Jus/ice."  Aristides,  without  saying  a 
word  more,  calmly  took  the  shell,  wrote  down  his  own  name 
upon  it,  and  contentedly  retired  into  banishment. 

But  the  present  distresses  of  his  country,  were  now  an  ob 
ject  that  strongly  solicited  his  return.  Even  Themistocles, 
his  rival,  was  so  far  from  remembering  his  old  resentments, 
that  he  now  ardently  desired  the  assistance  of  his  counsel ; 
and  gave  up  all  his  private  resentments  for  the  good  of  the 
state.  The  hatred  t)f  these  great  men,  had  nothing  in  it  of 
that  bitter  and  implacable  spirit,  which  prevailed  among  the 
Romans,  in  the  latter  times  of  the  republic ;  or  perhaps  their 
thoughts  were  then  occupied  only  by  the  desperate  situation 
of  their  country. 

But  the  preparations  by  land  alone,  were  not  sufficient  to 
repel  the  growing  danger.  If  the  Greeks  had  trusted  to  their 
land  armies,  without  further  succour,  they  must  have  been 
undone.  Themistocles,  who  saw  that  the  victory  of  Mara 
thon  must  be  followed  by  many  more,  before  safety  could  be 
ascertained,  had  prudently  caused  a  hundred  galleys  to  be  built; 
and  tunied  all  his  thoughts  to  give  Athens  a  superiority  at  sea 


i#6 


THE  HISTORY 


il 

i 


I 


The  oracle  had  declared,  some  time  before,  that  A  then  i 
should  defend  herself  only  by^wooden  walls ;  and  he  took  the 
advantage  of  that  ambiguity,  to  persuade  his  countrymen, 
tlfiit,  by  such  walls,  was  meant  only  her  shipping.  He  had 
the  address  to  procure  some  money,  annually  coming  in  from 
silver  mines,  which  the  Athenians  had  in  their  district,  to  the 
purposes  of  equipping  and  manning  this  fleet ;  and  now,  upon 
the  approach  of  Xerxes,  the  confederates  found  themselves 
at  the  head  of  a  very  powerful  squadron,  of  two  hundred  and 
eighty  sail;  the  command  of  which  was  conferred  upon 
Eurybiades,  a  Lacedaemonian. 

All  measures  being  taken,  that  this  brave  confederacy  could 
devise,  it  next  remained  to  settle  in  what  place  they  should 
first  meet  the  Persians  in  the  field,  in  order  to  dispute  their 
entrance  into  Greece.  The  people  of  Thessaly  represented, 
that,  as  they  were  most  exposed,  and  first  liable  to  be  attack- 
ed by  the  enemy,  it  was  but  reasonable  that  their  security 
should  ^e  the  first  object  of  attention.  The  Greeks,  willing 
to  protect  all  who  would  declare  in  their  quarrel,  in  pursu- 
ance of  this  request,  resolved  to  send  their  chief  force  to 
guard  the  passage  which  separates  Macedonia  from  Thessa- 
ly, near  the  river  Peneus.  But  Alexander,  the  son  of  Amyn- 
tas,  representing  that  post  as  untenable,  they  were  obliged  to 
change  their  measures ;  and  at  last  resolved  to  send  a  body 
of  men  to  guard  the  pass  at  Thermopylae,  where  a  few  were 
capable  of  acting  against  numbers. 

Thermopylae  was  a  narrow  pass,  of  twenty-five  feet  broad, 
between  Thessaly  and  Phocis,  defended  by  the  remains  of  a 
wall,  with  gates  to  it,  formerly  built  by  the  Phocians,  to  se- 
cure them  against  the  incursions  of  their  neighbouring  enemy. 
From  these  gates,  and  some  hot  baths,  which  were  at  the  en- 
trance into  the  pass,  the  strait  had  its  name.  This  was  cho- 
sen, as  well  for  the  narrowness  of  the  way,  as  for  its  vicinity 
to  the  sea,  from  which  the  land  forces  could  occasionally  re 
ceive  assistance  from  the  fleet. 

The  command  of  this  important  pass,  was  given  to  Leoni- 
das,  one  of  the  kings  of  Sparta,  who  led  thither  a  body  of 
six  thousand  men.  Of  these,  three  hundred  were  Spartans- 
the  rest,  consisting  of  Boeotians,  Corinthians,  Phocians,  and 
Arcadians ;  all  such  as  in  the  present  exigency  were  prepared 
for  the  field,  and  were  not  afraid  of  the  numbers  of  the  enemy. 
Each  of  these  had  particular  commanders  of  their  own,  but 
Leonidas  had  the  conduct  of  the  whole. 

But  though  the  determined  resolution  of  these  troops,  was 
Incapable  of  being  shaken,  little  was  expected  from  the  na- 
ture of  their  destination.     They  were  ?"  "'-^^ 


1 


OF  GREECE. 


67 


4.^.,  ^.1- *  « 


upon  themselves  as  a  forlorn  hope,  placed:  there  only  to 
check  the  progress  of  the  enemy,  and  give  them  a  foretaste 
of  the  desperate  valour  of  Greece;  nor  were  even  oracles 
wanting,  to  check  their  ardour.  It  had  been  declared,  that, 
to  procure  the  safety  of  Greece,  it  was  necessary  that  a  king, 
one  of  the  descendants  of  Hercules,  should  die.  This  task  was 
cheerfully  undertaken  by  Leonidas ;  and,  as  he  marched  out 
from  Lacedaemon,  he  considered  himself  as  a  willing  victim, 
offered  up  for  the  good  of  his  country :  however,  he  joyfully 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  little  band ;  took  possession 
of  his  post,  and,  with  deliberate  desperation,  waited,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, the  arrival  of  the  Persian  army. 

Xerxes,  in  the  mean  time,  approached  with  his  numerous 
army,  flushed  with  success,  and  confident  of  victory.  His 
camp  exhibited  all  the  marks  of  Eastern  magnificence  and 
Asiatic  luxury.  He  expected  to  meet  no  obstruction  on  his 
way  to  Greece :  he  led  on  his  forces,  rather  to  terrify  the  ene- 
my, than  to  fight  them ;  great,  therefore,  was  his  surprise,  to 
find  that  a  few  desperate  men  were  determined  to  dispute 
his  passage.  He  had  all  along  flattered  himself,  that,  on  the 
first  hearing  of  his  arrival,  the  Grecians  would  betake  them- 
selves to  flight ;  nor  could  he  ever  be  persuaded  to  believe, 
what  Demaratus  had  assured  him,  that,  at  the  first  pass  he 
came  to,  his  whole  army  would  be  put  to  a  stand. 

He,  himself,  took  a  view  of  their  camp  and  entrenchments.  - 
The  Lacedaemonians  were  some  of  them  calmly  amusing 
themselves  with  military  exercises,  others  were  combing  theii 
long  hair.  He  inquired  the  reason  of  this  conduct,  and  was 
informed,  that  it  was  the  Spartan  manner  of  preparing  them- 
selves for  battle.  Still,  however,  entertaining  some  hopes 
of  their  flight,  he  waited  four  days,  to  give  them  time  to 
reflect  on  the  greatness  of  their  danger,  but  they  still  con- 
tinued gay  and  unconcerned,  as  men  who  regarded  death  as 
tlie  end  of  labour. 

He  sent  to  them,  to  intimate  that  they  should  deliver  up 
their  arms.  Leonidas,  with  truly  Spartan  contempt,  desired 
him  to  come  and  take  them.  He  offered,  if  they  would  lay 
down  their  arms,  to  receive  them  as  friends,  and  to  give  them 
a  country  much  larger  and  better  than  that  for  which  they 
fought.  No  country,  they  replied,  was  worth  acceptance, 
unless  won  by  virtue ;  and  that,  for  their  arms,  they  should 
want  them,  whether  as  his  friends  or  entmies.  Upon  this, 
the  monarch  addressed  himself  to  Demaratus,  asking,  if  these 
desperate  men  could  expect  to  outrun  his  horses  ?  Demara- 
tus answered,  that  they  would  fight  to  the  last,  and  not  a 
man  of  them  would  survive  his  country's  freedom.     Some 


68 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


men  yrerc  heard  to  say,  tliat  the  Persians  \7ere  so  numeroui 
that  their  darts  wouM  darken  the  sun.  Diences,  a  Spartan, 
replied,  "  Then  we  shall  fight  in  the  shade." 

Xerxes,  thus  treated  with  contempt,  at  length  ordered  a 
body  of  Medes  to  advance;  desiring  such  as  had  lost  any  of 
their  relations  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  to  take  their  re- 
venge.  Accordingly,  they  began  the  onset,  but  were  repul 
ied  with  great  loss.  The  number  of  the  assailants  only  servec 
to  increase  their  confusion ;  and  it  now  began  to  appear,  tha/ 
Xerxes  had  many  followers,  but  few  soldiers. 

These  forces  being  routed  by  the  Grecian  troops,  the  Per 
8ian  immortal  band  was  brought  up,  consisting  of  ten  thou 
^nd  men.  But  these  were  as  unsuccessful  as  the  former 
The  charge  was  renewed  the  next  day ;  Xerxes  endeavour 
mg  to  inspire  his  troops  with  the  promises  of  reward,  sincf 
he  found  they  were  dead  to  the  sense  of  shame.  But  though 
their  charge  was  violent,  it  was  unsupported  ;  and  the  Greeks, 
standing  closely  connected  in  a  body,  withstood  the  shock, 
and  filled  the  way  with  Persian  carcases. 

During  these  unsuccessful  assaults,  Xerxes  was  a  specta- 
tor,  sitting  upon  his  throne,  placed  upon  an  eminence,  and 
directing  the  order  of  battle;  impetuous  in  his  pride  and 
resentment,  and  now  and  then  seen  to  leap  from  his  seat 
when  he  beheld  his  trooDs  in  confusion,  or  oflerinir  to  ^ivt 
way 

Thus,  did  the  Greeks  keep  their  ground  lor  two  days,  and 
no  power  on  earth  seemed  capable  of  removing  them  froi^ 
their  adv^antageous  station.  Xerxes,  out  of  all  hopes  of  beuitr 
able  to  force  a  passage,  appealed  under  the  greatest  coni 
sternation ;  but  he  was  relieved  from  his  embarrassment  by 
Che  appearance  of  Epialtes,  a  Trachinian,  who  had  desert- 
ed  from  the  enemy,  and  undertook  to  show  his  troops  a 
secret  path  that  led  through  the  defiles  of  the  mountains,  and 
through  which  a  body  of  forces  might  be  conducted,  to  fall 
upon  the  Grecians  in  the  rear. 

He  quickly,  therefore,  despatched  a  body  of  twenty  thou- 
sand  men,  thither;  who,  marching  all  night,  ariived,  at  the 
break  of  day  at  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  took  posses- 
sion  ot  that  advantageous  post. 

The  Greeks  were  soon  apprised  of  this  misfortune ;  and 
Leonidas,  seeing  that  his  post  was  no  longer  tenable,  advised 
the  troops  of  his  allies  to  retire,  and  reserve  themselves  for 
better  times,  and  the  future  ^safety  of  Greece.  As  for  him- 
self and  his  fellow  Spartans,  they  were  obliged,  by  their  laws, 
not  to  fly ;  that  he  owed  a  life  to  his  country,  and  that  it  was 
ftow  his  duty  to  fall  in  its  defence 


69 


Thus,  having  dismissed  all  but  his  three  hundred  Spartans 
with  some  Thespians  and  Thebans,  in  all  not  a  thousand  men' 
he  exhorted  his  followers,  in  the  most  cheerful  manner  to' 
prepare  for  death.     "  Come,  my  fellow-soldiers,"  says  he,  "/e/ 
us  dine  cheerfully  here^for  to-night  we  shall  siip  with  Pluto." 

His  men,  upon  hearing  his  determined  purpose,  set  up  a 
loud  shout,  as  if  they  had  been  invited  to  a  banquet,  and  re- 
solved, every  man,  to  sell  his  life  as  dearly  as  he  could.  The 
night  now  began  to  advance,  and  this  was  thought  th  -  most 
glorious  opportunity  of  meeting  death  in  the  enemy's  camn, 
where  the  silence  would  favour  desperation,  and  hide  the 
smallness  of  their  numbers.  Thus  Tesolved,  they  made  di- 
rectly for  the  Persian  tents,  and,  in  the  darkness  of  the  night, 
had  almost  reached  the  royal  pavilion,  with  hopes  of  sur- 
prising the  king.  The  obscurity  added  much  to  the  horror 
of  the  scene,  and  the  Persians,  fallinij  upon  each  other  with- 
out distinction,  rather  assisted  the  Grecians,  than  defended 
themselves.  Thus,  success  seemed  to  crown  the  rashness  of 
their  enterprise,  until  the  morning  beginning  to  dawn,  the 
light  discovered  the  smallness  of  theii  numbers. 

They  were  soon,  therefore,  surrounded  by  the  Persian 
forces,  who,  fearing  to  fall  in  upon  them,  flung  their  javelins, 
from  every  quarter;  till  the  Greeks, not  so  much  conquered, 
as  tired  with  conquering,  fell  amidst  heaps  of  the  slaughter- 
ed enemy;  leaving  behind  them  an  example  of  intrepidity, 
never  known  before.  Leonidas  was  one  of  the  first  that  fell ; 
and  the  endeavours  of  the  Lacedaemonians  to  defend  his  dead 
body,  were  incredible.  It  was  found,  after  the  battle,  buried 
under  a  mountain  of  the  dead,  and  was  nailed  to  a  cross,  by 
way  of  infamy,  by  the  brutal  victor. 

Of  all  the  train,  two  only  escaped,  whose  names  were  Ari^- 
'odemus  and  Panites.  The  latter,  upon  his  return  to  Sparta, 
was  branded  with  infamy,  and  treated  with  such  contempt, 
that  he  killed  himself.  Aristodemus  reserved  himself  for 
another  occasion:  and,  by  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Platiea, 
recovered  that  honour  which  he  had  lost.  Some  time  after 
this  transaction,  the  Amphictyons  ordered  a  magnificent 
monument  to  be  erected  over  these  brave  defenders  of  their 
country,  and  Simonides,  the  poet,  wrote  their  epitaph. 

Xerxes,  in  the  battle,  is  said  to  have  lost  twenty  thousand 
men ;  among  whom,  were  two  of  his  brothers.  But,  to  con- 
ceal the  greatness  of  his  loss  from  the  army,  he  caused  all  h\x\ 
a  thousand  of  those  that  were  slain,  to  be  buried,  in  holes,  in 
discriminately :  however,  his  stratagem  had  very  bad  success; 
for,  when  the  soldiers  of  tlic  fleet  were  curious  some  time 
after,  in  taking  a  survey  of  the  field  of  battle,  they  discoverpt! 


70 


THE  HISTORY 


Uie  artifice ;  and  urged  it  as  an  act  of  flagrant  impiety  against 
him. 

Dismayed  at  an  obstinacy  in  the  enemy,  that  cost  him  so 
dear,  Xerxes  was,  for  some  time,  more  inclined  to  try  his  for- 
tune at  sea,  than  to  proceed  immediately  into  the  country ; 
where  he  had  learned,  from  Demaratus,  that  eight  thousand 
Spartans,  such  as  he  had  but  lately  fought  with,  were  ready 
to  receive  him.  Accordingly,  the  very  day  of  the  battle  of 
Thermopylae,  there  was  an  engagement,  at  sea,  between  the 
two  fleets.  The  Grecian  fleet  consisted  of  two  hundred  and 
seventy-one  vessels.  That  of  the  enemy  had  lately  lost  four 
hundred  vessels  in  a  shipwreck,  but  was  still  greatly  superior 
to  the  fleet  of  the  Grecians. 

To  repair  this  loss,  by  a  victory,  two  hundred  Persian  ves- 
sels had  orders  to  take  a  compass,  and  surprise  the  Grecians 
lying  in  the  straits  of  Eubcea ;  but  the  Grecians,  being  ap- 
p-  ised  of  their  designs,  set  sail,  by  night,  and  so,  by  a  coun- 
ter surprise,  fell  in  with  them,  while  they  were  thus  separat- 
ed from  their  main  squadron;  took  and  sunk  thirty,  forced 
the  rest  to  sea ;  and  there,  by  stress  of  weather,  they  were  all 
soon  after  either  sunk  or  stranded. 

Enraged  at  these  disappointments,  the  Persians  bore  down, 
liie  next  day,  with  their  whole  fleet;  and,  drawing  it  up  in 
form  of  a  half  moon,  made  an  off*er  of  battle;  which  the 
Greeks  as  readily  accepted.  The  Athenians  having  been  re- 
inforced with  three  and  fifty  sail,  the  battle  was  very  obsti- 
nate and  bloody,  and  the  success  nearly  equal  on  both  sides ; 
so  that  both  parties  seemed  content  to  retire  in  good  order. 

All  these  actions,  which  passed  near  Artemisium,  though, 
at  that  time,  indecisive,  yet  served  not  a  little  to  animate  and 
inspire  the  Athenians ;  who  were  now  taught  to  think  that 
there  was  nothing  either  formidable  in  the  numbers,  or  use- 
ful in  the  size  of  the  Persian  ships.  Thus,  strengthening 
themselves  with  the  hopes  of  more  splendid  engagements, 
they  sailed  away  from  Artemisium,  and  stopped  at  Salamis, 
where  they  might  most  conveniently  assist  the  Athenians. 

In  the  mean  time,  Xerxes  having  entered  with  his  numer 
ous  army  into  the  country  of  Phocis,  burning  and  plundering 
every  town  through  which  he  passed,  the  inhabitants  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, who  were  naturally  defended  by  their  inaccessible 
situation,  as  their  country  was  joined  to  the  continent  only  by  a 
neck  of  land,  thought  it  the  most  prudent  way  to  defend  the 
isthmus  by  a  wall,  to  take  shelter  behind  that  rampart,  and 
to  leave  the  rest  of  Greece  to  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror. 

The  Athenians,  however,  whose  country  lay  without  the 
Isthmus,  remonstrated  lour  ly  against  this  desertion,  and  cn- 


OF  GREECE.  "l 

deavoured  to  persuade  the  Greeks  to  face  the  enemy  in  tlic 
plain.  But  prudence  prevailed,  and  Themistocles  gave  them 
to  understand,  that,  though  their  country  should  be,  for  a 
while,  overrun  by  the  invader,  yet  they  had  still  their  wooden 
walls  to  lely  on,  for  their  fleet  was  ready  to  transport  them 
to  such  of  their  settlements  as  they  thought  proper. 

At  first,  however,  this  advice"  was  the  most  hateful  that 
could  be  imagined.  The  people  thought  themselves  inevita- 
bly lost,  if  they  should  once  abandon  the  temples  of  their 
gods,  and  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors.  But  Theroistocles, 
using  all  his  eloquence  and  address  to  work  upon  their  pas- 
sions, represented  to  them  that  Athens  did  not  consist  either 
in  its  walls  or  its  houses,  but  in  its  citizens,  and  that  the  saving 
of  these  was  the  true  preservation  of  the  state.  A  decree, 
therefore,  was  passed,  by  which  it  was  ordained,  that  Athens, 
for  a  while,  should  be  given  up,  in  trust,  to  the  gods ;  and 
that  all  the  inhabitants,  whether  in  freedom  or  slavery,  should 
embark  on  board  the  fleet. 

In  this  calamitous  desertion,  Cimon,  though  very  young, 
was  seen  encouraging  the  citizens,  by  his  words  and  example. 
Bearing  in  his  hands  a  part  of  his  horse's  furniture,  he  went 
lo  off*er  it,  as  now  useless,  in  the  temple  of  Minerva;  and  then 
l^oing  down  to  the  water  side,  was  the  first  that  cheerfully 
went  on  board.  When  he  was  followed  by  the  rest  of  tlie 
'ity,  so  moving  and  melancholy  a  sight,  drew  tears,  even  from 
Ihe  most  obdurate.  A  brave,  generous,  polite,  and  ancient 
Deople,  now  forced  from  their  native  seats  to  undergo  all  the 
vicissitudes  and  dangers  of  the  sea,  to  implore  a  retreat  from 
foreign  states,  and  give  up  their  native  lands  to  the  spoiler, 
iv^as  a  most  moving  spectacle.  Yet  the  steadiness  and  cou- 
-age  of  some,  and  the  pious  resignation  of  all,  demanded  the 
utmost  admiration. 

The  young  and  adventurous  embarked  for  the  island  of  Sa- 
'amis;  the  old,  the  women,  and  children,  took  shelter  at  the 
city  of  Troezene,  the  inhabitants  of  which  generously  offered 
them  an  asylum.  They  even  allowed  them  a  maintenance, 
at  the  expense  of  the  public ;  permitted  their  children  to 
gather  fruit  wherever  they  pleased,  and  appointed  masters 
for  their  instruction. 

But,  in  this  general  desertion,  that  which  extremely  »*aised 
the  compassion  of  all,  was  the  great  number  of  old  men  they 
were  obliged  to  leave  in  the  city,  on  account  of  their  age  and 
infirmities.  Many  also  voluntarily  remained  behind,  believing 
that  the  citadel  which  they  had  fortified  with  wooden  ram- 
parts, was  what  the  oracle  pointed  out  for  general  security. 
1  o  heighten  this  scene  of  general  distress,  the  matrons  wttm 


72 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


7a 


seen  clinging,  with  fond  affection,  to  tiie  places  in  which  thp. 
had  so  long  resided;  the  wives  filled  the  streets  v^thi< 

^pmTn'r' ''"''  'r  PoordomestL  altrufeUr^o  Uke 
a  part  m  the  general  concern.  It  was  impossihle  to  sec  these 
poor  creatures  run  howling  and  crvine  alf,.P  f ,  J  I 

who  were  going  on  ship-boafd/wltl^rb^eiS  sronJy  X^d 
Among  these,  the  faithfulness  of  a  particula^r  dS  reSlt 

who  jumped  into  the  sea  after  his  master,  and  contTnued 
swimming,  as  near  as  he  could  to  the  vessel,  til  L  landed  a, 

ter^'-'^lfi-"'"  '"°'"*^"'  '^ft^'-  "P°»  the  shore  ^"'  "' 
r-.I^i  7  »n'l?''"ants  that  remained  behind,  retired  into  the 
citadel;  where  literally  interpreting  the  orace, they  fortified 

approach"  '■"'  '^"""'' ^"'^  P'''""^'^  waited 'the  Invade;^ 

the  GrelS  wlr^emproS^^^^^^  ^''  '"J"  '"^^^ 

nalfoft'ha'trr'"!  {^  ^^-P-    "'vl^L^tTitL^^^^^^^^^^^ 

terms  of  acromml!^  /•       ^*  J^^^"*  country,  would  listen  to  no 

.£::drw\°rdt?h;  tLS:&gtfb«s  t 

ouTwSKeTwerf  al^  ^T?"^^='^^""  carrifdTlldrTh  «" 
dured  to  a'shes  ^  "'^  ''''°-'"''' ''"''  '^«  "'»«»'='  ■■«• 

^5w\ivrr;rhror„t-olf^^^^^^^^ 

ciuV  wj:?,r  coTs'uU  uoof t'h'^''^  """-^^^  summo„?d":cou„- 
opposing    hrhrba'^oT- .'"^drtir  U^re^plr '^tf 

that  it  migh't  co.o;e;at;:?tV^"a:m7r  1^/.  Z  T^ "?' 
Socles  was  entirely  of  flT.nfK*»«       •  -  \       *  ^^^  Thenns- 

-uld  be  the'^i^Llrnifesrert^tndl'^riH'''''^  '' 
.««ot..  a  po«,  as  that  of  Salami,,  whlVttl' were"  thcHtt 


tioned.  They  were  now,  he  said,  in  possession  of  the  nar- 
row seas,  where  the  number  of  the  enftmy  could  never  avail 
them ;  that  the  only  hope  now  left  the  Athenians,  was  their 
fleet,  and  that  this  must  not  be  capriciously  given  up,  by 
iijnorance,  to  the  enemy. 

"Euribyades,  who  considered  himself  as  glanced  at,  could 
not  contain  his  resentment,  but  offered  to  strike  Themisto- 
cles,  for  his  insolence.  Slrike  me,  cried  the  Athenian ;  strike 
nte,  but  hear  me.  His  moderation  and  his  reason  prevailed  : 
the  generals  were  reconciled  to  each  other,  and  the  result  of 
the  council  was,  that  they  should  prepare  to  receive  the  Per- 
sians on  the  isthmus,  by  land,  and  in  the  straits  of  Salamis, 
by  sea. 

Meanwhile,  Xerxes,  after  having  demolished  and  burned 
Athens,  marched  down  towards  the  sea,  to  act  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  fleet,  which  he  had  determined  should  once  more 
come  to  an  engagement  with  that  of  the  enemy.  This  was 
what  ThemistocleSjinhis  present  situation,  most  ardently  desir- 
ed ;  but  he  was  fearful  his  confederates  would  not  have  cour- 
age to  abide  the  encounter.  Their  thoughts  were  still  bent 
upon  sailing  towards  the  isthmus,  and  assisting  their  army,  in 
case  of  distress.  Themistocles,  therefore,  in  this  exigence, 
was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  one  of  those  stratagems  which 
mark  superiority  of  genius ;  he  contrived  to  let  Xerxes  pri- 
vately understand  that  the  confederates  were  now  assembled 
at  Salamis,  preparing  for  flight,  and  that  it  would  be  an  easy 
task  to  attack  and  destroy  them.  This  information  was  at- 
tended with  the  desired  success.  Xerxes  gave  orders  to  his 
fleet  to  surround  Salamis,  by  night,  in  order  to  prevent  an  es 
cape  v^'hich  he  so  much  dreaded. 

in  this  manner,  the  Grecian  fleet  was  blocked  up,  and  no 
safety  remained, but  in  intrepidity  and  conquest.  Even  The- 
mistocles himself  was  not  apprised  of  the  situation  of  his  own 
forces  and  that  of  the  enemy:  all  the  narrow  straits  werfi 
blocked  up,  and  the  rest  of  the  Persian  fleet  was  sent  for,  to 
make  every  passage  impracticable. 

In  this  exigence,  Aristides,  in  whose  bosom  the  love  of  his 
country  always  prevailed  over  every  private  revenge,  was  re- 
solved to  venture  all,  in  order  to  apprise  Themistocles  of  his 
situation  and  danger.  He  was  then  at  jEgina,  where  he  had 
some  forces  under  his  command;  and,  with  very  great  dan- 
ger, ventured,  in  a  small  boat,  through  all  the  fleet  of  the 
enemies,  by  night. 

Upon  landing,  he  made  up  to  the  tent  of  Themistocles. 
and  addressed  him,  in  the  following  manner:  "If  we  are 
H^ise,  Themistocles,  we  shall  henceforth  lay  aside  those  vain 


74 


THE  HISTORY 


and  puerile  dissensions,  which  have  hitherto  separated  ns 
One  strife,  and  a  noble  emulation  it  is,  now  remains  for  us, 
which  of  us  shall  be  m'>st  serviceable  to  our  country.  It  is 
yours,  to  command  as  a  general ;  it  is  mine,  to  obey  as  a  sub- 
ject ;  and  happy  shall  I  be,  if  my  advice  can  any  way  contri- 
bute to  your  own  and  my  country's  glory.'* 

He  then  informed  him  of  the  fleet's  real  situation,  and 
warmly  exhorted  him  to  give  battle,  without  delay.  The- 
mistocles  felt  all  the  generous  gratitude,  which  so  disinter- 
ested a  conduct  demanded ;  and,  eager  to  show  a  new  return 
of  noble  friendship,  disclosed  to  him  all  his  projects  and  aims, 
particularly  this  last,  of  suffering  himself  to  be  surrounded 
After  this,  they  used  their  joint  authority  with  the  othei 
commanders,  to  persuade  them  to  engage;  and  according 
ly  both  fleets  prepared  themselves  for  battle. 

The  Grecian  fleet  consisted  of  three  hundred  and  eighty 
ships;  the  Persian  fleet  was  much  more  numerous.  But, 
whatever  advantage  the  Persians  had  in  numbers,  and  the 
size  of  their  shipping,  they  fell  infinitely  short  of  the  Greeks 
in  their  naval  skill,  and  their  acquaintance  with  the  seas 
where  they  fought ;  but  it  was  particularly,  in  their  command- 
er, that  the  Greeks  were  superior, 

Euribyadeshad  nominally  the  conduct  of  the  fleet ;  but  The- 
mistocles,  in  reality,  conducted  all  their  operations.  Nothing 
escaped  his  vigilance ;  and  he  knew  how  to  improve  every 
incident,  to  the  greatest  advantage.  He,  therefore,  deferred 
the  onset,  until  a  wind,  which,  at  that  time  of  the  year,  was 
periodical,  and  which  he  knew  would  be  favourable,  com- 
menced. As  soon  as  this  arose,  the  signal  was  given  for 
battle ;  and  the  Grecian  fleet  sailed  forward,  in  exact  order 

Xerxes,  imputing  his  former  ill  success  at  sea  to  his  own 
absence,  was  resolved  to  be  a  witness  of  the  present  engage- 
ment, from  the  top  of  a  promontory;  where  he  caused  a 
throne  to  be  erected,  for  that  purpose.  ^This  served,  in 
some  measure,  to  animate  his  forces ;  who,  conscious  of  their 
king's  observance,  resolved  to  merit  his  applause.  The  Per- 
sians, therefore,  advanced  with  such  courage  and  impetuosity, 
as  struck  their  enemy  with  terror ;  but  their  ardour  abated, 
when  the  engagement  became  closer.  The  numerous  disad- 
vantages of  their  circumstances  and  situation,  then  began  to 
appear.  The  wind  blew  directly  in  their  faces;  the  height 
and  heaviness  of  their  vessels,  rendered  them  unwieldy  and 
useless ;  even  the  number  of  their  ships  in  the  narrow  sea 
where  they  fought,  served  only  to  embarrass  them,  and  in- 
crease their  confusion. 

Th*!  lonians,  whom  Themistocles  had  implored,  by  charge* 


OF  GREECE. 


n 


ters  engraven  along  the  rocks  of  their  coast,  to  remember 
from  whence  they  derived  theif  original,  were  the  first  wh6 
betook  themselves  to  flight.  In  the  other  wing,  the  contest 
was,  for  some  time,  doubtful ;  until  the  Phoenicians  and  Cy- 
prians being  driven  on  bhore,  the  rest  retired  in  great  disor- 
der, and  fell  foul  of  each  other,  in  their  retreat. 

In  this  total  defection,  Artemisiua  alone  seemed  to  stop  the 
progress  of  victory ;  and,  at  the  head  of  her  five  ships,  per- 
formed incredible  acts  of  valour.  Xei-xes,  who  was  a  spectator 
of  her  conduct,  could  not  help  crying  out,  that  his  soldiers  be- 
haved like  women  in  the  conflict,  and  the  women  like  soldiers. 

As  this  queen,  from  her  signal  intrepidity,  was  become  very^ 
obnoxious  to  the  Athenians,  a  price  had  been  set  on  her  head 
sensible  of  which,  as  she  was  on  the  point  of  falling  into  theii 
hands,  by  a  lucky  turn  of  thought,  she  pretended  to  desert 
from  her  own  party,  and  to  fall  foul  of  one  of  their  ships : 
the  Greeks  thus  concluding,  that  she  either  belonged  to  them, 
or  was  a  deserter,  permitted  her  to  escape. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  confederates  pursued  the  Persian 
fleet,  on  every  side :  some  were  intercepted  at  the  straits  of 
Attica;  many  were  sunk,  and  more  taken.  Above  two  hun 
dred  were  burned ;  all  the  rest  were  dispersed ;  and  the  allies, 
dreading  the  resentment  of  the  Greeks,  as  well  as  of  the  Per- 
sian king,  made  the  best  of  their  way  to  their  own  country. 

Such,  was  the  success  of  the  battle  of  Salamis ;  in  which, 
the  Persians  had  received  a  severer  blow,  than  they  had  ever 
hitherto  experienced,  from  Greece.  Themistocles,  in  a  secret 
conversation  with  Aristides,  was,  or  pretended  to  be,  so  ela- 
ted, as  to  propose  breaking  down  the  bridge  by  which  Xei-xes 
had  made  his  way  into  Europe.  Whether  Themistocles  was 
really  sincere  in  the  proposal,  remains  a  doubt ;  but  Aristides 
used  all  his  powers  to  persuade  his  coadjutor  from  such  an 
undertaking.  He  represented  to  him  the  danger  of  reducing 
so  powerful  an  enemy  to  desperation ;  and  asserted,  that  it 
was  his  wish  to  be  relieved  from  such  an  intruder,  with  all 
possible  despatch.  Themistocles  at  once  asquiesced  in  his 
reasons ;  and,  in  order  to  hasten  the  king's  departure,  con- 
trived to  have  him  secretly  informed,  that  the  Grecians  de* 
signed  to  break  down  the  bridge. 

The  situation  of  Xerxes  was  such,  that  the  smallest  repulse 
was  sufficient  to  wean  him  from  his  darling  expedition.  As- 
tonished at  the  late  overthrow,  and  alarmed  at  this  new  in 
formation,  he  only  wanted  a  decent  opportunity  to  retreat, 
when  Mardonius  came  conveniently  to  extricate  him  from  his 
embarrassments.  He  began,  by  extenuating  the  late  loss,  and 
the  many  expedients  that  remained  to  relieve  their  situation  • 

G  3 


n 


THE  HiSTORY 


he  laid  all  the  blame  of  their  defeat,  upon  tlie  cowardice  of  tbt 
auxiliaries,  and  their  insincere  attachment  to  his  kingdom. 

Lest  the  fame  of  his  ill  success,  which  always  represents 
things  worse  than  they  are,  should  occasion  any  commotions 
in  his  absence,  he  engaged,  if  he  would  leave  him  three  hun- 
dred thousand  of  his  choice  troops,  to  subdue  all  Greece.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  event  proved  otherwise,  he  would  take 
all  the  blame  of  miscarriage,  and  suffer,  in  person,  if  it  were 
to  retrieve  the  honour  of  his  master. 

This  advice  was  very  well  received  by  Xerxes ;  who,  think- 
ing enough  had  been  given  to  glory,  when  he  had  made  him- 
self master  of  Athens,  prepared  to  return  to  Persia,  at  the 
head  of  a  part  of  his  army  ;  leaving  the  other  part  of  it  with 
Mardonius :  not  so  much  with  the  hope  of  reducing  Greece, 
as  through  the  fear  of  being  pursued. 

These  resohitions  were  communicated  in  a  council  held 
soon  after  the  fight ;  and  the  night  following,  the  fleet  set  sail, 
in  great  confusion,  towards  the  Hellespont,  and  took  up  their 
winter  quarters  at  Cuma.  The  king  himself  leaving  the 
generals  to  take  care  of  the  army,  hastened,  with  a  small  re« 
tinue,  to  the  sea  side ;  which  he  reached  forty-five  days  after 
ihe  battle  of  Salamis.  When  he  arj'ived  at  the  place,  he  found 
ihe  bridge  broken  down,  by  the  violence  of  the  waves,  in  a 
tempest  which  had  lately  happened  there.  He  was,  therefore, 
obliged  to  pass  the  strait  in  a  small  boat ;  which  manner  of 
returning,  being  compared  to  the  ostentatious  method  in  which 
he  had  set  out,  rendei*ed  his  disgrace  still  more  poignant  and 
afflicting.  The  army  which  he  had  ordered  to  follow  him, 
having  been  unprovided  with  provisions,  suffered  great  hard- 
ships by  the  way.  After  having  consumed  all  the  corn  they 
could  find,  they  were  obliged  to  live  upon  herbs,  and  even 
upon  the  bark  and  leaves  of  trees.  Thus  harassed  and  fa- 
tigued, a  pestilence  began,  to  complete  their  misery ;  and, 
after  a  fatiguing  journey  of  forty-five  days,  in  which  they 
were  pursued  rather  by  vultures  and  beasts  of  prey,  than  by 
men,  they  came  to  the  Hellespont,  where  they  crossed  over, 
and  marched  from  thence  to  Sardis.  Such,  was  the  end  of 
Xerxes'  expedition  into  Greece ;  a  measure  begun  in  pride, 
and  cerminating  in  infamy. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  we  have  all  this  account 
from  the  Greek  writers,  only;  who  no  doubt  have  been  partial 
»o  their  countrymen.  I  am  told,  that  the  Persian  historians 
represent  this  expedition  in  a  very  different  light ;  and  say, 
that  the  king  was  recalled  in  the  midst  of  his  successes,  to 
quell  an  insurrection  at  home.  Be  this  as  it  will,  the  affairs 
gf  Persia  seemed,  after  that,  to  go  backward,  until  the  time 


\ 


OF  GREECE. 


77 


when  Alexander  led  a  conquering  army  of  Greeks  to  invade 
ihem  in  turn. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

From  the  Retreat  of  Xerxes^  to  the  Peace  concluded  he'toeen  the 

Greeks  and  the  Persians. 

The  earliest  object  to  which  the  Greeks  attended,  after  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  was  to  send  the  first  fruits  of  the  .  ^ 
rich  spoil  they  had  taken  from  the  Persians,  to  Del-  '.^^o^^ 
phos.  Considered  in  a  confederated  light,  they  were  "*  * 
ever  attentive  to  the  duties  of  religion ;  and,  though  the  sects 
and  opinions  in  philosophy,  taught  mankind  to  entertain  but 
very  mean  ideas  of  the  objects  of  public  worship,  yet  it  was 
religion  that  formed  their  bond  of  union  ;  and,  for  a  while, 
held  them  feebly  together.  When  that  bond  came  to  be  brok- 
en, and  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons  became  rather  a  po- 
litical, than  a  religious  assembly,  the  general  union  no  longer 
prevailed ;  and  the  different  states  fell  a  sacrifice  to  their  own 
contentions. 

The  Joy  of  the  Greeks,  upon  this  victory,  was  general  and 
loud ;  every  commander  had  his  share  of  honour ;  but  the 
glory  of  Themistocles  eclipsed  that  of  all  the  rest.  It  was  a 
custom  in  Greece,  that,  after  a  battle,  the  commanding  officers 
should  declare  who  had  distinguished  themselves  most,  by 
writing  the  names  of  such  as  merited  the  first  and  second  re- 
wards. On  this  occasion,  each  officer  concerned,  adjudged 
the  first  rank  to  himself,  but  all  allowed  the  second  to  The- 
mistocles ;  which  was,  in  fact,  a  tacit  superiority.  This  was 
farther  confirmed  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  who  carried  him  in 
triumph  to  Sparta;  and,  having  adjudged  the  rewards  of 
valour  to  their  own  countryman,  Euribyades,  adjudged  that 
of  wisdom  to  Themistocles.  They  crowned  him  with  olive ; 
presented  him  with  a  rich  chariot,  and  conducted  him,  with 
three  hundred  horse^  to  the  confines  of  their  state. 

But  still  there  was  a  homage  paid  him,  which  flattered  his 
pride  yet  more ;  when  he  appeared  at  the  Olympic  games,  the 
spectators  received  him  with  uncommon  acclamations.  As 
soor  as  he  appeared,  the  whole  assembly  rose  up,  to  do  him 
honour :  nobody  regarded  either  the  games  or  'he  combatants; 
Themistocles  was  the  only  spectacle  worth  their  attention. 
Struck  with  such  flattering  honours,  he  could  not  help  o\>- 
serving,  that  he  that  day  reaped  the  fruits,  of  all  his  labours. 

After  the  Grecians  had  returned  from  pursuing  the  Persian 
fleet,  Themistocles  sailed  to  all  the  islands  which  had  espoused 


78  THE  HISTORY 

their  interests,  in  order  to  levy  contributions.  The  first  he 
applied  to  was  that  of  Andros,  from  whose  inhabitants  he  re- 
quired  a  considerable  sum.  I  come^  said  he,  to  you^  accompa' 
itied  by  tuoo  very  powerful  divinities,  Persuasion  and  Necessity, 
Alas !  replied  they,  we^  also,  have  divinities  on  our  side,  Poverty 
Cy?id  ImpossibUity.   . 

In  consequence  of  this  reply,  he  blocked  them  up  for  some 
lime ;  but  finding  them  too  well  fortified,  he  was  obliged  to 
retire.  Some  other  islands,  however,  were  furnished  neither 
with  so  much  reason,  nor  so  much  power.  He  exacted  large 
sums  from  all  such  as  were  incapable  of  opposition ;  and  these 
contributions  he  converted  chiefly  to  his  own  private  advan- 
tage; thus  showing,  in  his  own  character,  two  very  oddly  as- 
sorted qualities,  avarice  and  ambition. 

In  the  mean  time,  Mardonius,  who  remained  in  Greece, 
with  a  body  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  passed  the  win- 
ter in  Thessaly ;  and,  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  led  thera 
down  into  the  province  of  Boeotia.  From  thence,  he  sent 
Alexander,  king  of  Macedonia,  with  a  splendid  retinue  to 
Athens,  with  proposals  for  an  accommodation ;  and  to  endeav- 
our to  make  them  separate  their  interests  from  the  general 
cause  of  Greece.  He  offered  to  rebuild  their  city ;  to  give 
them  a  considerable  sum  of  money:  to  suffer  them  to  enjoy 
their  laws  and  constitution,  and  to  give  them  the  government 
of  all  Greece. 

Aristides  was,  at  that  time,  in  the  highest  office,  being  prin- 
cipal archon  at  Athens.  It  was  in  his  presence,  that  the  king 
of^  Macedon  made  his  proposals  ;  and  that  the  deputies  from 
the  other  states  of  Greece,  endeavoured  to  avert  their  force. 
But  Aristides  wanted  no  prompter,  but  the  natural  dictates 
of  his  own  heart,  to  give  them  an  answer.  "  To  men,"  said 
he,  "  bred  up  to  pleasure  and  ignorance,  it  is  natural  to  prof 
fer  great  rewards ;  and  to  hope,  by  bribes,  to  buy  off  virtue. 
Barbarians,  who  make  silver  and  gold  the  chief  objects  of 
their  esteem,  may  be  excused  for  thinking  to  corrupt  the  fideli- 
ty  of  every  people :  but  that  the  Lacedaemonians,  who  came 
to  remonstrate  against  these  offers,  should  suppose  they  could 
prevail,  was  indeed  surprising.  The  Athenians  have  the 
common  liberty  of  Greece  entrusted  to  their  care,  and  moun- 
tains of  gold  are  not  able  to  shake  their  fidelity.  No :  so  long 
as  that  sun  which  the  Persians  adore,  continues  to  s]iine,  with 
wonted  splendour,.so  long  shall  the  Athenians  be  mortal  ene- 
mies to  the  Persians ;  so  long  shall  they  pursue  them,  for 
ravishing  their  lands,  for  burning  their  houses,  and  polluting 
their  temples :  such,  is  the  answer  we  return  to  the  Persian 
Jjroposal ;  and  you,**   continued  he,  addressing  himself  t» 


OF  GREECE. 


79 


Alexander, "  if  you  are  truly  their  friend,  refrain,  for  the  fu- 
rare,  from  being  the  bearer  of  such  proposals  ;  your  honour, 
and  perhaps  even  your  safety,  demands  it." 

All  treaty  being  thus  broken  up,  Mardonius  prepared  to 
act  with  vigour,  and  invaded  Attica,  which  the  Athenians 
were  once  more  obliged  to  desert  and  leave  to  his  fury.  He 
entered  Athens,  ten  months  after  it  had  been  taken  by  Xei-xes, 
the  inhabitants  having  again  conveyed  tjiemselves  to  Salamis, 
and  other  neighbouring  places. 

In  that  state  of  exile  and  want,  they  continued  contented 
with  all  their  sufferings,  since  repaid  by  freedom.  Even  Ly- 
cidas,  a  senator,  who  attempted  to  propose  a  submission,  was 
stoned  to  death,  while  his  wife  and  children  met  with  the  same 
fate  from  the  women ;  so  strong  was  the  aversion  which  the 
Athenians  had  conceived  against  all  communications  Avith 
Persia, 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Spartans,  whose  duty  it  was  to  co- 
operate with  the  Athenians  with  equal  ardour,  unmindful  of 
the  general  cause,  thought  only  of  making  preparations  for 
their  own  security ;  and  resolved  to  fortify  the  isthmus,  in  or- 
der to  hinder  the  enemy  from  entering  into  Peloponnesus. 

'  This,  the  Athenians  considered  as  a  base  and  ungrateful  de- 
fection, and  sent  deputies  to  remonstrate  against  the  Spartan 
conduct.  They  had  orders  to  say,  that  if  Sparta  would  per- 
sist in  its  partial  method  of  seeking  security,  the  Athenians 
would  follow  their  example ;  and,  instead  of  suffering  all  for 
Greece,  would  turn,  with  their  fleet,  to  the  Persians;  who, 
being  thus  masters  of  the  sea,  could  invade  the  territory  of 
Sparta  whenever  they  should  think  proper.  These  menaces 
had  so  good  an  effect,  that  five  thousand  men  were  privately 
despatched,  each  attended  with  seven  Helotes,  and  were  ac- 
tually upon  their  march  before  the  Spartans  gave  the  Athe- 
nian deputies  any  answer. 

Mardonius  had  left  Attica,  at  this  time,  and  was  on  his  re- 
turn to  the  country  of  Boeotia ;  where  he  resolved  to  await 
the  approach  of  the  enemy,  as  he  could  there  draw  up  his 
(orces  with  greater  ease,  than  in  the  hilly  parts  of  Attica, 
where  a  few  might  be  opposed  to  numbers  with  greater  suc- 
cess. He  encamped  by  the  river  Asopos,  along  the  banks  of 
which  his  army  extended,  consisting  of  three  hundred  thou 
sand  fighting  men. 

Great,  as  this  army  was,  the  Greeks,  with  much  inferioi 
forces,  resolved  to  meet  it  in  the  field.  Their  troops  were  b> 
ihis  time  assembled,  and  amounted  to  seventy  thousand  men 
i)f  these,  five  thousand  were  Spartans,  attended  by  thirty-fivr 
Uiottsaud  Helotes.    The  Athenians  amounted  to  eight  tjiou 


80 


THE  HISTORY 


sand,  and  the  troops  of  the  allies  made  up  the  remainder.  In 
the  right  wing  of  this  army,  the  Spartans  were  placed,  com- 
manded by  Cleombrotus;  in  the  left  wing,  the  Athenians, 
with  Aristides  at  their  head. 

In  this  order,  they  followed  Mardonius  into  Boeotia,  deter- 
mined on  trying  the  fate  of  a  battle ;  and  encamped  at  no 
j^rcat  distance  from  him,  at  the  foot  of  mount  Cythaeron. 
Here,  they  continued  for  some  time,  awaiting,  in  dreadful 
suspense,  a  battle  that  was  to  determine  the  fate  of  Greece. 
Some  skirmishing  between  the  Persian  cavalry,  and  the  wing 
of  the  Grecian  army,  in  which  the  latter  were  successful, 
seemed  to  give  a  presage  of  future  victory,  for  which,  how- 
ever, during  ten  days,  neither  side  seemed  willing  to  strike. 

While  the  two  armies  were  thus  opposed,  waiting  the  most 
favourable  opportunity  of  engaging;  the  Greeks,  by  their 
mutual  dissensions,  were  upon  the  point  of  losing  their  free- 
dom, in  satisfying  their  mutual  jealousy.  The  first  dispute 
that  arose  in  the  army,  was  begun  by  the  Tegeans,  who  con- 
tended with  the  Athenians  upon  the  point  of  precedence. 
They  willingly  allowed  the  Spartans  the  command  of  the  right 
wing,  as  they  constantly  had  it :  but  they  insisted  on  having 
the  left ;  alleging  that  they  had  earned  it  by  former  acts  cJ 
valour,  and  well-known  success. 

The  dispute  ran  high ;  a  mutinous  disposition  began  to 
prevail  in  all  parts  of  the  army ;  and  the  enemy  were  likely 
to  become  victorious,  without  a  blow. 

In  this  general  spirit  of  dissension,  Aristides  alone  appear- 
ed unmoved.  Long  noted  for  his  impartiality  and  justice,  all 
parties  fixed  their  eyes  upon  him,  as  the  only  moderator  from 
whom  they  could  expect  satisfaction.  Wherefore,  turning 
himself  to  the  Spartans,  and  some  of  the  rest  of  the  confede- 
rates, he  addressed  them  in  the  following  manner :  "  It  is  not 
now  a  time,  my  friends,  to  dispute  about  the  merit  of  past 
services ;  for  all  boasting  is  vain,in  the  day  of  danger.  Let 
it  be  the  brave  man's  pride,  to  rest  assured,  that  it  is  not  the 
post  or  station  which  gives  courage,  or  which  can  take  it 
away.  I  head  the  Athenians ;  whatever  post  you  shall  assign 
us  we  will  maintain  it :  and  make  our  station,  wherever  we 
are  placed,  the  post  of  true  honour  and  military  glory.  We 
are  come  hither,  not  to  contend  with  our  friends,  but  to  fight 
with  our  enemies ;  not  to  boast  of  our  ancestors,  but  to  imi- 
tate them.  This  battle  will  distinguish  the  particular  merit 
of  each  city,  each  commander,  and  even  the  lowest  sentinel 
will  share  the  honour  of  the  day." 

This  speech  determined  the  council  of  war  in  favour  i  f 


OF  GREECE. 


SI 


A  fatal  conspiracy,  in  the  midst  of  the  Athenians,  threat- 
ened  consequences  still  more  dangerous,  as  they  were  uns7en 
Some  of  the  best  and  richest  families,  who  had  wastod  the?; 
fortunes  m  the  war,  and  lost  their  credit  in  the  ci?y,  enter^ 
into  a  confederacy,  to  deliver  up  Greece  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians.    Anst.des,  however,  still  watchful  in  the  servke  of 
the  s  ate,  was  early  informed  of  their  machinations,  Mdi^- 
stantly  laid  their  schemes  before  the  general  council      No"- 
withstanding,  he  was  contented  with  hiving  eight  of  the  con- 
.pirators  arrested;  and  of  these,  two  only  were  reserved  for 
trial.     Yet  his  lenity,  or,  to  call  it  by  a  truer  name,  his  nru 
dence,  would  not  permit  him  to  act  rigorously,  e^en  aga'^nsi 
these ;  as  he  knew  that  severity,  in  times  of  general  dS 
would  but  depress  the  ardour  of  the  army,  he  permittedTlfem 
to  escape;  and  thus  sacrificed  public  justicMo  public  security 
.».K    H^'™'^'  ^"^  "°'^  continued  for  ten  days  in  sight  of 
.ach  other  in  anxious  expectation  of  an  engagement-  both 
willing  to  begin,  yet  afraid  to  strike,  as  the  a^lreTsor  was  o 
engage  at  a  disadvantage.     But  Mardonius  KTatur^l" 
|.f  an  impatient,  fiery  disposition,  grew  very  unlasy  at  so 
lisli'':i,d  th:  f"'-''  '''"'  ""'  ""'^•'  provisioTs'^tft  f^r 
a^diSftelh^^^^i^r  ^""  ''"'  '^^  ^^'•""^^■•'  "^  ^'•^ 
,.^!'  ^^u"i?''^'-  "^^^'^  ^  <=»"n"l  of  war,  to  deliberate  wheth- 
merk  .t?        f"  ''^f"^-     ^rtabazus,  a  person  of  singular 
merit  and  great  experience,  was  of  opinion,  that  theyshoufd 

ral'rThe'bes'"''!,-!'"^'''^*  they  sLuId' retire  uLer^e 
and  subii^f  !V^''%"'!,^"^'">'''^"''""=<'  °f  ^^"°"s  "oops, 
their  own  .n.^^""'"  leaders,  would  destroy  each  other,  by 
on  th.7  'I'^^^ns'ons ;  or  might  be  partly  corrupted  to  give 
up  the  common  cause.  p    u  i"  {.ivc 

snurredo&"  *^^  the  most  reasonable;  but  Mardonius, 
fS  J^  ^  T".""^  impetuosity,  and  wearied  with  a  pro' 
contrS  T  ^  '*'°'\'='' '°  *"^S«  5  "O"-  had  the  rest  coura^  to 
?h.v  =K  M^' ■  '^?°''"i°"-  The  result,  therefore  was^  that 
they  should  give  battle  the  next  day.  ' 

lot  W  ^""^  "-evolved,  on  the  side  of  Persia,  the  Greeks  wore 
Iv  aDDHfJ'',K'"  •  ^u  i^e  engagement:  they  had  been  secret- 
of  the  result  o?  IIE'^'p''''?'""'  "y  A'F?'ander,  king  of  Macedon, 
eave  orH^^i  .  l^  ^'■"*''  councils.  Pausanius,  therefore, 
fiid  Hr,if  ^!-  V^^'  *°  prepare  themselves  for  battle ; 
«!,'„?„  T^^  "P  h's  fo"-"*,  placed  the  Athenians  on  the  right 
L  «n^  better  acquainted  with  the  Persian  manner  of  filh^ 
"»8f,  and  flushed  with  former  success.  * 


82 


THE  HISTORY 


Whether  it  was  fear  or  prudence  that  suggested  this  change 
to  the  general,  the  Athenians  took  the  post  of  honour  with 
exultation :  nothing  was  heard  among  them  but  mutual  ex- 
hortations to  bravery,  and  a  steady  resolution  to  conquer  or 
fall.  But  Mardonius,  hearing  of  this  alteration  in  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  Grecian  army,  made  an  alteration  also  in  his  own. 
This  oncf  more  produced  a  change  likewise  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  Greeks  ;  by  which  changing  and  re-changing  the 
order  of  battle,  nothing  farther  was  done  that  day. 

At  night,  the  Greeks  held  a  council  of  war,  in  which  it 
was  resolved,  that  they  should  decamp  from  their  present 
snuation,  and  march  to  another,  more  conveniently  situated 
for  water.  As  their  removal  was  to  be  performed  in  the  night, 
much  disorder  ensued  ;  and,  in  the  morning,  Mardonius  per- 
ceiving them  scattered  over  the  plain,  he  supposed  that  they 
were  flying,  rather  than  retreating  :  he,  therefore,  resolved  to 
pursue  them,  with  his  whole  army. 

The  Greeks,  perceiving  his  design,  soon  collected  then 
scattered  forces,  which  the  darkness  had  dispersed,  but  not 
intimidated  ;  and,  halting  near  the  little  city  of  Plataea,  there 
determined  to  await  the  shock  of  their  pursuers.  The  barba 
rian  forces  soon  came  up  to  the  engagement,  with  their  ac- 
customed howling,  expecting  rather  to  plunder,  than  to  fight. 

The  Lacedaemonians,  who  closed  up  the  rear  of  the  Gre- 
cian army,  were  the  first  who  supported  the  shock  of  the  as- 
sailants.  They  were,  in  some  measure,  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  army,  by  the  obstinacy  of  one  of  their  own  regi- 
ments, who  considered  their  retreat  as  contrary  to  the  idea  of 
Spartan  discipline ;  but,  still  consisting  of  a  formidable  body 
of  men,  they  were  in  a  capacity  of  making  head  against  the  in- 
vaders. Collecting  themselves  into  a  phalanx,  they  stood  im- 
pencti  able  and  immoveable,  to  all  the  assaults  of  the  enemy. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Athenian  troops,  who  were  apprised 
of  the  attack,  quickly  turned  back,  in  order  to  assist  their  al- 
lies ;  but  the  Greeks,  who  were  in  Persian  pay,  to  the  number 
of  five  thousand,  intercepted  their  return.  Thus,  the  battle 
was  divided  into  two,  and  fought,  with  great  ardour,  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  field.  But  nothing  could  resist  the  weight  of 
%  the  Spartan  phalanx;  which,  after  some  time,  broke  in  upor 
the  Persian  forces,  and  put  them  into  disorder. 

In  this  tumu!t,  Mardonius,  Jn  attempting  to  restore  the  or- 
der of  battle,  and  rushing  into  the  midst  of  the  carnage,  was 
killed,  by  Aimnestus, a  Spartan;  and,  soon  afterwards,  all  his 
arntiy  betook  themselves  to  flight.  The  other  Greek  troops 
soon  followed  the  brave  example  set  them  by  Sparta,  and  thf 
rout  became  general 


OF  GREECE. 


83 


Artabazus,  who  commanded  a  body  of  forty  thousand  Per- 
•ians    fled  with   them,  towards  the   Hellespont:   while  the 
rest  fortified  themselves,  in  theii:.  camp,  witli  wooden  ramparts 
There,  they  were  attacked  by  the  Spartans ;  but,  not  beine  well' 
skilled  in  that  part  of  war,  the  Athenians  soon  came  up  to 
their  assistance,  and  effected  a  breach  in  this  hasty  rampart 
^    It  was  then,  that  the  slaughter  of  the  enemy  was  indiscrim- 
inate, and  terrible      Of  all  the  Persian  army,  that  had  taken 
refuge  there,  not  four  thousand  men  escaped.     Above  a  hun- 
dred thousand  men  were  put  to  the  sword ;  and  the  conquer- 
ors, willing  to  rid  their  country,  at  once,  of  their  terrible  in- 
yaders,  refused  to  give  quarter.     Thus,  ended  the  Persian 
mvasions  of  Greece;  nor,  ever  after,  was  the  Persian  armv 
keen  to  cross  the  Hellespont. 

The  carnage  being  at  last  over,  the  Greeks  buried  their 
dead,  which  at  most  did  not  amount  to  ten  thousand  men  • 
and  soon  after,  as  a  testimony  of  their  gratitude  to  Heaven' 
they  caused  a  statue  of  Jupiter  to  be  made,  at  the  general  ex- 
pense, which  they  placed  in  his  temple,  at  Olympia.  The 
names  of  the  several  nations  of  Greece,  that  were  present 
in  the  engagement,  were  engraven  on  the  right  side  of  the 
pedesta  of  the  statue;  the  Spartans  first,  the  Athenians  next, 
and  all  the  rest  in  order.  ' 

In  the  mean  time,  while  success  attended  the  Grecian  arms 
upon    and,  they  were  not  less  fortunate,  at  sea.     The  ereat- 

?jr.°r  "  P^'-^t".'^^^''  ''^"'^  "'«  defeat  at  Salamis,  win- 
tered at  Cumie ;  and,  m  the  spring,  moved  to  Samos,  both 
to  guard  and  awe  the  coasts  of  Asia.  The  Grecians,  in  ihe 
mean  time,  were  refitt  „g  their  ships  at  ^.gina ;  and,  be  ng  im- 
portuned by  the  Samians,  they  put  to  sea  under  the  conduct 
of  Lcotichydes,  the  Spartan,  and  Xanthippus,  the  Athenian. 
1  he  Persians  apprised  of  their  approach,  and  having  lon^ 
experienced  their  own  inferiority,  would  not  venture  to  opposf 
them,  at  sea,  but  drew  up  their  ships,  upon  land,  at  Mycale, 
a  promontory  of  Ionia ;  where  they  fortifie  .  them  with  a  wal 

of  tivfv'^K'"'"     i  r*"''=  "'^  '^'"'^  ''^^°  protected  by  an  army 
01  sixty  thousand  foot,  under  the  command  of  Tigranes. 

Mfn.t'Vi  ^'^'^'f'''"-^."'"  *••='«■■  '••«  ^'•"'^s  '■■•"■n  venturing  to 
attack  them.  Leotichydes  having  endeavoured  to  make  th- 
loinans  revolt,  landed  his  forces,  and  the  next  day  prepared' 
for  the  assault.  He  drew  up  his  army  in  two  bodies ;  the  one 
consisting  chiefly  of  Athenians  and  Corinthians,  kept  the 
P  am,  whilst  the  other,  of  Lacedemonians,  marched  over  the 
mils  and  precipices,  to  gain  the  highes.  ground. 

1  he  battle  being  joined,  great  courage  and  resolution  wan 
•Down  on  both  sides,  and  the  fortune  of  the  dav  continued  fo. 


84 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GBEECE. 


a  long  time  in  suspense.     The  defection  of  the  Greek  aux- 
iliaries in  the  Persian  army,  turned  the  fate  of  the  battle :  the 
Persians  were  soon  routed,  and  pursued,  with  great  slaugh 
tcr,  to  their  very  tents. 

The  Athenians  had  made  themselves  masters  of  the  field 
before  the  Lacedaemonians  could  come  to  their  assistance,  so 
that  all  the  share  these  had  in  the  action  was  to  disperse 
some  Persian  troops,  which  were  attempting  to  make  a 
regular  retreat ;  soon  afterwards,  their  ramparts  were  forced, 
and  all  their  vessels  burned,  so  that  nothing  could  be  more 
complete,  than  the  victory  at  Mycale.  Tigranes,  the  Per- 
sian general,  and  forty  thousand  men  of  his  army,  lay  dead 
on  the  field  of  battle ;  the  fleet  was  destroyed ;  and,  of  the 
great  army  brought  into  Europe  by  Xerxes,  scarcely  one 
remained,  to  carry  back  the  tidings. 

The  battle  of  Plataea  was  fought  in  the  morning,  and  that 
of  Mycale  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  But,  what  is  very 
extraordinary,  it  is  universally  affirmed,  that  the  victory  at 
Plataea  was  known  at  Mycale  before  the  battle  began,  though 
it  is  a  passage  of  several  days  from  one  place  to  the  other. 
It  is  most  probable  that  Leotichydes  made  use  of  the  repori 
to  encourage  his  army,  and  incite  them  to  emulate  their  as- 
sociates in  the  cause  of  freedom. 

During  these  misfortunes,  Xerxes,  who  had  been  the  cause 
of  all,  lay  at  Sardis,  expecting  the  event  of  his  expedition ; 
but  every  hour  coming  loaded  with  the  news  of  some  fatal 
disaster,  finding  himself  unable  to  retrieve  his  affairs,  he  re« 
tired  farther  into  the  country;  and  endeavoured  to  drown,  in 
luxury  and  riot,  the  uneasy  reflections  of  his  unsuccessful 
ambition. 

To  the  want  of  success  abroad,  was  added  the  contempt 
of  his  subjects  at  home  ;  and  this  brought  on  a  train  of  trea- 
sons, insurrections,  sacrilege,  murder,  incest,  and  cruelty; 
so  that  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  as  scandalous,  as  the 
first  part  of  it  had  been  unfortunate. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  after  the  battle  of  Mycale,  set  sail  to- 
wards the  Hellespont,  to  occupy  the  bridges  which  Xerxes 
had  built  over  that  strait ;  but,  finding  them  already  destroyed 
by  the  tempestuous  weather,  they  returned  home.  From 
this  time,  all  the  cities  of  Ionia  revolted  from  the  Persians; 
and,  having  entei^ed  into  the  general  confederacy,  most  of 
them  preserved  their  liberty  during  the  time  that  empire 
subsisted. 

The  treasures  which  the  Persians  had  brought  into  Greece, 
were  very  great ;  and  these,  of  course,  became  a  prey  to  the 
<:onquei*ors.    From  this  period,  the  Greeks  began  to  lose  their 


f 


8* 


spirit  of  hardy  and  laborious  virttie ;  and  to  adopt  the  refined 
indolence,  the  captious  petulance,  and  the  boundless  love  of 
pleasure,  which  are  always  the  result  of  extreme  wealth.  The 
former  equality  of  the  people,  now  began  to  be  broken  ;  rnd, 
while  one  part  of  the  inhabitants  rioted  in  opulence  and  luxu- 
ry, another  was  seen  pining  in  want  and  despair.  It  was  in 
vain  that  philosophy  reared  its  head,  to  stop  these  calamities : 
its  voice  reaches  only  a  few ;  the  great,  and  the  little  vulgar, 
arc  equally  deaf  to  its  dictates. 

From  this  time,  we  are  to  view  a  different  picture  ;  and,  in- 
stead of  a  brave  and  refined  people,  confederating  against 
tyranny,  we  are  to  behold  an  enervated  and  factious  populace, 
a  corrupt  administration  among  those  in  power,  and  wealth 
alone  making  distinction. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

From  the  Vklory  at  Mycale^  to  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian 

War. 

No  sooner  were  the  Greeks  freed  from  the  appre-  .  ^^ 
nensions  of  a  foreign  invasion,  than  they  began  to  en-  ^' 
tertain  jealousies  of  each  other.  Indeed,  these  petty  '^^^^• 
animosities  had  all  along  subsisted  among  them ;  but  they 
were  kept  under  by  the  sense  of  general  danger.  As  this  col- 
lection of  republics  was  composed  of  states  entirely  dissimi- 
lar in  manners,  interests,  and  inclinations,  it  was  no  way  sur- 
prising to  find  its  parts  ever  at  variance  with  each  other. 

The  first  marks  of  jealousy,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Persian  army,  exhibited  themselves  between  the  Athenian^ 
and  Spartans;  the  one,  a  refined  ambitious  people, unwilling 
to  admit  a  superior  in  the  general  confederacy;  the  other,  a 
hardy  unpolished  race,  which  could  never  think  of  admitting 
a  feebler  state  as  an  equal.  The  Athenians,  with  their  fami- 
lies, having  returned  to  their  own  country,  began  to  think  of 
rebuilding  their  city,  which  had  been  almost  destroyed  dui-^ 
ing  the  Persian  war. 

As  every  new  foundation  aims  at  improving  the  old,  they 
laid  a  plan  of  strengthening  and  extending  their  walls ;  and 
giving  their  city,  at  once,  more  magnificence  and  security. 
This  was  but  natural :  however,  the  Lacedaemonians  conceived 
a  jcafousy  at  this  undertaking;  and  began  to  think  that  Athens, 
from  being  mistress  of  the  seas,  would  soon  attempt  usurp- 
ing all  authority  upon  land. 

They,  therefore,  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Athenians,  to  dis- 
suade them  from  this  undertaking;  giving,  as  an  ostensibly 


64 


THE  HISTORY 


reason,  the  danger  such  fortifications  would  be  of  to  the  gene- 
ral confederacy,  if  they  should  ever  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians.  This  message  at  first  appeared  reasonable,  and  the 
Athenians  put  an  immediate  stop  to  their  undertaking ;  but 
Themistocles,  who,  since  the  battle  of  Salamis,  continued  to 
guide  in  the  assemblies  of  Athens,  easily  saw  through  the 
pretext ;  and  advised  the  council  to  meet  their  dissimulation 
with  similar  address. 

He,  therefore,  answered  the  Spartan  ambassadors,  that  the 
Athenians  would  soon  send  an  embassy  to  Lacedaemon,  in 
which  they  would  fully  satisfy  all  their  scruples.  Having  thus 
gained  time,  he  procured  himself  to  be  elected  for  that  im- 
portant negociation ;  and  took  care  to  draw  out  the  treaty  by 
studied  delays.  He  had  previously  desired  that  his  colleagues 
should  follov/^,  one  after  another ;  and  still  he  alleged,  at  Lace- 
daemon, that  he  only  waited  for  their  arrival,  to  determine 
the  affair  at  a  single  audience. 

During  all  this  time,  the  work  was  carried  on  at  Athena 
with  the  utmost  vigour  and  industry ;  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, strangers  and  slaves,  were  all  employed  in  it,  nor  was 
it  interrupted  for  a  single  day. 

It  was  in  vain,  that  the  Spartans  complained  of  this  proce- 
dure ;  it  was  in  vain,  that  they  urged  Themistocles  to  hasten 
his  business:  he  steadfastly  denied  the  fact,  and  entreated  them 
not  to  give  any  credit  to  loose  and  idle  reports.  He  desired 
they  would  send  again,  and  inquire  into  the  truth  of  the  matter; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  advised  the  Athenians  to  detain  the 
Spartan   envoys,   until  he  and  his  colleagues  should  return. 

At  last,  finding  all  his  pretence  for  delay  exhausted,  he  bold- 
ly demanded  an  audience ;  and,  knowing  that  the  work  was 
finished,  he  no  longer  kept  on  the  mask.  He  then  informed 
the  Spartans,  in  full  council,  that  Athens  was  now  in  a  con- 
dition to  keep  out  any  enemy,  whether  foreign  or  domestic  ; 
chat  what  his  countrymen  had  done,  was  conformable  both  to 
the  law  of  nations  and  the  common  interests  of  Greece ;  that 
every  city  had  a  right  to  consult  for  its  own  safety,  without 
submitting  to  the  voice  or  control  of  its  neighbours :  that 
what  had  been  done  was  entirely  in  consequence  of  his  advice: 
and,  in  short,  that  whatever  injury  they  offered  him,  they  must 
expect  would  be  returned  upon  their  own  ambassadors,  who 
were  still  detained  at  Athens. 

These  declarations  extremely  displeased  the  Lacedaemoni- 
ans :  but,  either  sensible  of  their  truth,  or  unwilling  to  come 
to  an  open  rupture,  they  dissembled  their  resentment ;  and 
the  ambassadors,  on  both  sides,  having  all  suitable  honours 
paid  them,  returned  to  their  respective  cities.    Themistoclet 


OF  GREECK 


87 


was  received  with  as  much  joy,  by  his  fellow-citizens,  as  if 
he  had  returned  from  a  triumph ;  and  he  was  of  a  disposition 
to  feel  those  honours,  with  the  highest  delight. 

Having  thus  taken  proper  precautions  for  securing  the  city, 
his  next  care  was  to  strengthen  the  port,  and  form  a  harbour, 
at  once  spacious  and  secure.  He  likewise  obtained  a  decree, 
tliat  every  year  they  should  build  twenty  vessels,  to  continue 
and  augment  their  force  by  sea ;  and,  in  order  to  induce  the 
greater  number  of  workmen  and  sailors  to  resort  to  Atnens, 
he  caused  particular  privileges  and  immunities  to  be  granted 
in  their  favour. 

His  design  was,  to  render  Athens  entirely  a  maritime  city; 
in  which,  he  followed  a  very  different  system  of  politics,  from 
their  former  governors ;  who  bent  all  their  efforts  to  alienate 
the  minds  of  the  people  from  commerce  and  naval  affairs. 

But,  as  success,  in  one  part,  is  apt  to  lead  on  to  designs 
still  more  extensive,  Themistocles  was  willing  to  outstep  the 
bounds  of  justice,  in  the  prosecution  of  his  darling  projects 
He  even  formed  a  plan  for  supplanting  Sparta,  and  making 
Athens  the  unrivalled  mistress  of  Greece.  On  a  certain  day, 
therefore,  he  declared,  in  a  full  assembly  of  the  people,  tha* 
he  had  a  very  important  design  to  propose ;  but  which  could 
not  be  communicated  to  the  public,  as  the  execution  required 
secrecy  and  despatch.  He,  therefore,  desired  they  would  ap- 
point a  person  to  whom  he  might  explain  himself;  one,  whose 
judgment  might  direct,  and  whose  authority  might  confirm 
him  in  his  design.  To  direct  in  a  matter  of  this  importance. 
It  was  not  easy  to  overlook  the  wisest  and  the  best  man  of  the 
state:  and  Aristides  was  unanimously  chosen,  as  the  mosi 
pioper  person,  to  weigh  the  justice,  as  well  as  the  utility,  of 
the  proposal. 

Themistocles,  therefore,  taking  him  aside,  told  him  that  the 
design  he  had  conceived,  was  to  burn  the  fleet  belonging  to 
the  rest  of  the  Grecian  states,  which  then  lay  in  a  neighbouring 
port;  and  thus  procure  Athens  an  undisputed  sovereignty  of 
the  sea.  Aristides,  inwardly  displeased  at  the  proposal,  made 
no  answer;  but,  returning  to  the  assembly, informed  them,  that 
nothing  could  be  more  advantageous  for  Athens,  than  what 
J  hemistocles  had  proposed;  but  nothing  could  be  more  unjust. 

The  people,  still  possessed  of  a  share  of  remaining  virtue, 
unanimously  declined  the  proposal,  without  knowing  its  con- 
tents; and  conferred  the  surname  of  Just  upon  Aristides;  a 
title  still  more  flattering,  as  he  had  so  well  deserved  it. 

Thus,  Athens  being  restored  to  peace  and  security,  once 
more  began  to  apply  to  those  arts  that  adorn  life,  and  secure 
freedom.    The  people  began  to  assume  a  greater  share  in  the 


8J 


THE  HISTORT 


goYcrnment  of  the  state,  than  they  had  hitherto  aspired  at;  and 
steps  were  every  day  taken,  to  render  the  constitution  entire. 
ly  popular. 

Aristides  perceived  this ;  and  dreaded  the  consequences  of  a 
democratic  government;  he,  therefore,  procured  a  decree,  that 
the  archons,  who  were  the  chief  magistrates  of  the  state,  should 
be  chosen,  indiscriminately,  from  all  ranks  of  Athenians,  with 
out  distinction.  Thus,  by  indulging  the  citizens  in  a  part  oi 
their  wishes,  he  secured  a  legal  subordination  among  the  whole 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Grecians,  encouraged  bv  their  formei 
victories,  resolved  to  send  a  fleet  to  deliver  their  confederates, 
who  still  groaned  beneath  the  Persian  yoke.  Pausanias  com- 
nianded  the  Spartan  fleet,  while  Aristides,  and  Cimon,  the  son 
of  Miltiades,  were  appointed  to  conduct  the  fleets  of  Athens. 
This  was  the  first  time  that  Cimon,  who  was  yet  very  youne' 
was  placed  in  a  sphere  for  the  exhibition  of  his  virtues. 

He  had  formerly  suffered  himself  to  be  imprisoned  towards 
the  i-atisfying  of  his  father's  fine,  and  his  pietv,  upon  that  oc- 
casion, gave  the  most  favourable  presage  of  his  future  great- 
ness. When  set  at  liberty,  his  services  in  war  soon  became 
conspicuous ;  and  it  was  seen  that  he  acted  with  the  courage 
of  his  father,  the  judgment  of  Themistocles,  and  with  morr 
sincerity  than  either.  The  ingenuous  openness  of  his  temper, 
being  easily  seen,  he  was  opposed  in  the  state  as  a  counter- 
poise  to  the  craft  and  subtlety  of  Themistocles;  and  thus  ad- 
vanced to  the  highest  employments,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

Under  these  commanders,  the  allied  fleet  first  directed  their 
course  to  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  where  they  restored  all  the  cities 
to  their  liberty:  then,  steering  towards  the  Hellespont,  they 
attacked  the  city  of  Byzantium, of  which  they  made  themselves 
masters ;  and  took  a  vast  number  of  prisoners,  many  of  whom 
were  the  richest  and  most  considerable  families  of  Persia. 

The  success  of  this  expedition  was  not  more  flattering  to 
the  Cirecks,  than  in  the  end  injurious  to  them.  A  delu"-e  of 
wealth  pouring  in,  corrupted  the  simplicity,  and  tainted  the 
manners,  of  every  rank  of  people.  The  Athenians,  already 
skilled  in  the  arts  of  politeness  and  effeminacy,  concealed  their 
change,  for  a  time;  but  it  soon  broke  out  among  the  Spar- 
tans,  and  Pausanias  himself,  their  commander,  was  the  first 
infected  with  the  contagion. 

Being  naturally  of  a  haughty  and  imperious  temper,  and, 
still  more,  impressed  with  the  gloomy  austerity  of  Sparta,  he 
iet  no  bounds  to  his  iambition :  he  treated  his  officers  and  even 
the  confederate  generals,  with  severity,  arrogance,  and  dis 
dam;  and  so  much  alienated  the  minds  of  the  soldiers,  that 


OP  GREECE. 


8d 


l«  was  forsaken  by  all  the  confederates,  who  put  themselves 
under  the  command  and  protection  of  Aristides  and  Cimon. 

These  generals  had  always  observed  a  contrary  deport- 
ment :  affable,  courteous,  and  obliging,  they  tempered  their 
authority  with  mildness ;  and  won,  by  their  manners,  such  as 
they  could  not  engage  by  their  benefits.  An  opposition,  so 
mortifying,  could  not  but  be  displeasing  to  Pausanias :  it 
was  in  vain,  that  he  attempted  to  keep  up  his  authority  by 
pride  and  ostentation  ;  his  importance  sunk  with  his  unpop- 
ularity ;  and  he  became  contemptible,  even  to  those  that  still 
acknowledged  his  command. 

Perhaps  it  was  from  these  motives,  that  he  resolved  to  sa 
orifice  his  country  to  his  ambition ;  and  give  up  to  the  Per- 
sians, a  state  where  he  could  no  longer  expect  to  dictate.  Be 
this  as  it  will,  he  made  overtures  for  gaining  the  favour  of 
Xerxes ;  and,  in  order  to  ingratiate  himself  at  the  court  of 
that  monarch,  he  suffered  some  of  his  more  exalted  prison- 
ers to  make  their  escape,  by  night,  commissioned  with  let- 
ters to  Xerxes ;  wherein,  he  offered  to  deliver  up  Sparta  and 
all  Greece,  on  condition  that  he  would  give  him  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage. 

Xerxes  readily  hearkened  to  the  proposal,  and  referred  him 
to  Artabazus,  his  governor,  to  concert  measures  with  him 
for  putting  it  in  execution.  He  also  furnished  him  with  a 
large  sum  of  money,  to  be  distributed  among  such  of  the 
Grecian  states  as  would  join  in  the  conspiracy. 

How  long  this  treaty  continued  secret,  we  are  not  told; 
but  it  was  discovered  at  Sparta,  before  it  could  be  put  into 
execution ;  and  Pausanias  was  ordered  home,  to  take  his  trial 
for  the  offence.  The  proofs,  however,  against  him,  were  not 
Buflicient  for  conviction ;  as  the  ephori  had  made  it  a  rule 
never  to  convict  a  man,  but  upon  the  plainest  evidence.  But 
his  command  was  taken  from  him ;  and  he  retired,  still  med- 
itating revenge  and  destruction  to  his  country. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  received  a  second  sum- 
mons to  appear  before  the  ephori,  for  fresh  crimes,  and  a 
number  of  his  own  slaves  were  found  to  depose  against  him. 
Still,  however,  he  had  the  fortune  to  come  off;  the  mildness 
of  tlie  Spartan  laws,  and  tl  e  authority  of  his  regal  office, 
which  he  still  possessed,  conspiring  to  protect  him. 

Pausanias,  having  in  this  manner  twice  escaped  the  justice 
of  his  country,  would  not,  however,  abandon  his  base  projects, 
or  sacrifice  his  resentment  to  his  safety.  Immediately  upon 
his  being  acquitted,  he  returned  to  the  sea-coasts,  without  any 
authority  from  the  state,  and  still  continued  to  carry  on  hii 
correspondence  with  Artabazus. 


911 


THE  HISTORY 


He  now  acted  with  so  little  reserve,  that  his  conduct  wjis 
known  to  the  ephori,  and  they  only  wanted  information  to 
convict  him.  While  they  were  thus  perplexed  for  evidence^ 
a  certain  slave,  who  was  called  the  Argillian,  cleared  their 
doubts,  and  came  with  proofs  which  could  not  be  resisted. 

This  man  had  been  employed,  by  Pausanias,  to  carry  a  let- 
ter to  Artabazus,  and  he  accordingly  prepared  himself  for 
the  expedition ;  but,  reflecting  that  many  of  his  fellow-slaves 
had  been  sent  on  similar  messages,  and  seeing  none  of  them 
return,  he  was  induced  to  open  the  packet  of  which  he  was 
the  bearer,  and  there  he  discovered  the  mystery,  and  his  own 
danger. 

It  seems,  that  Pausanias  and  the  Persian  governor,  had 
agreed  to  put  to  death  all  the  messengers  they  mutually  sent 
to  each  other,  as  soon  as  their  letters  were  delivered;  so  that 
there  might  be  no  possibility  left  of  tracing  out  or  discover, 
ing  the  correspondence.  This  letter  he  delivered  to  the 
ephori,  who  were  now  convinced  that  Pausanias  was  guilty; 
but,  they  were  desirous  of  having  a  fuller  confirmation  from 
himself. 

For  this  purpose,  they  contrived  that  the  slave  should 
lake  sanctuary  in  the  temple  of  Neptune,  as  for  safety  and 
protection  ;  and,  under  a  pretence  of  supplicating  the  deity, 
for  the  infidelity  he  had  committed.  The  instant  Pausanias 
was  informed  of  his  slave's  behaviour,  he  hastened  to  the 
temple,  to  inquire  the  reason  ;  where  the  slave  informed  him, 
that,  having  opened  his  letter,  he  found  the  contents  fatal  to 
himself ;  and,  therefore,  took  this  method  of  averting  the  dan- 
ger. Pausanias,  instead  of  denying  the  fact,  endeavoured 
rather  to  pacify  the  slave,  and  promised  him  a  large  reward 
to  bribe  his  future  secrecy.  But,  during  this  interview,  the 
ephori  had  privately  posted  persons  to  overhear  the  conver- 
sation, and  they  soon  divulged  his  guilt. 

The  moment,  therefore,  he  had  returned  to  the  city,  the 
ephori  resolved  to  seize  him ;  and,  from  the  aspect  of  one  of 
these  magistrates,  he  plainly  perceived  his  danger :  he  there- 
fore  flew  to  take  sanctuary  in  the  temple  of  Minerva,  and  got 
thither  before  his  pursuers  could  overtake  him. 

As  the  religion  of  the  state  would  not  permit  his  being 
laken  forcibly  from  thence,  the  people  stopped  up  the  en- 
trance, with  great  stones;  and,  tearing  off*  the  roof,  left  him 
exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  After  a  short 
stay,  he  was  starved  to  death ;  and,  in  this  miserable  manner, 
died  the  general  who  had  led  on  the  victorious  troops  to  the 
field  of  Plataea. 

The  fate  of  Pausanias  soon  afterwards  involve^  that  of 


OF  GREECE. 


91 


Themistocles,  who  had  some  time  before  been  banished,  and 
lived  in  great  esteem  at  Argos.  A  passionate  thirst  of  glory, 
and  a  strong  desire  to  command  arbitrarily  over  the  citizens, 
liad  made  him  very  odious  at  Athens. 

Pie  had  built,  near  his  house,  a  temple,  in  honour  of  Diana, 
under  this  title,  "  To  Diana,  the  goddess  of  good  counsel," 
as  hinting  at  his  own  counsels  upon  several  important  occa- 
sions, and  thus  tacitly  reproaching  his  fellow-citizens  of  hav- 
ing forgotten  them.  This,  though  a  small  off*ence,  was  suffi- 
cient to  expel  him  from  so  fluctuating  and  jealous  a  state,  as 
that  of  Athens;  but  he  was  now  accused  of  having  partici- 
pated in  the  designs  of  Pausanias.  In  fact,  Pausanias  had 
communicated  to  him  all  his  designs ;  but  Themistocles  had 
rejected  his  proposals,  with  the  utmost  indignation.  But  he 
concealed  his  treason ;  either  thinking  it  base  to  betray  the 
secrets  trusted  to  his  confidence,  or  imagining  it  impossible 
''or  such  dangerous  and  ill-concerted  schemes  to  take  efiect. 

Be  this  as  it  will,  upon  the  downfal  of  Pausanias,  it  appear- 
ed, that  a  correspondence  had  been  carried  on  betAveen  them  ; 
and  the  Lacedaemonians  declared  themselves  his  accusers,  be- 
fore the  assembly  of  the  people  of  Athens.  Such  of  the  citi- 
zens as  had  long  either  envied,  or  feared  Themistocles,  now 
joined  in  the  general  accusation,  and,  with  great  acrimony, 
urged  his  death. 

Aristides,  alone,  who  had  long  been  his  open  opposer,  re- 
fused to  join  in  this  base  confederacy  against  him,  and  rejected 
so  mean  an  opportunity  of  revenge;  being  as  little  inclined  to 
delight  in  the  misfortunes  of  his  adversary,  as  he  had  before 
been  to  envy  his  success.  It  was  in  vain,  that  Themistocles 
answered,  by  letters,  to  the  calumnies  laid  against  him ;  it  was 
in  vain,  he  alleged  that  a  mind  like  his,  disdaining  slavery  at 
home,  could  think  of  wishing  for  it  in  exile :  the  people,  too 
strongly  wrought  upon  by  his  accusers,  sent  persons  to  seize 
and  bring  him  before  the  council  of  Greece. 

Fortunately,  however,  he  had  timely  notice  of  their  design, 
and  went  to  take  refuge  in  the  island  of  Corcyra;  to  the  in- 
habitants of  which,  he  had  formerly  done  signal  services. 
From  thence,  he  fled  to  Epirus ;  and,  finding  himself  still  pur- 
sued by  the  Athenians,  grown  at  length  desperate,  he  fled  to 
Admetus,  king  of  the  Molossians,  for  refuge.  There,  he  first 
practised  all  the  abject  arts  of  a  man  obliged  to  sue  to  a  ty- 
rant for  succour.  He  had,  on  a  former  occasion,  been  instru 
mental  in  preventing  the  Athenians  from  granting  aid  to  this 
monarch;  and  this  was  now  severely  remembered  against  him, 
Admetus  was  from  home,  at  the  time  Themistocles  came  to 
implore  protection :  and,  upon  his  return,  he  was  surprise.ri 


If 


M 


THE  HISTORT 


OF  GREECE. 


93 


to  find  his  old  adversary,  who  had  come  lo  put  nimself  undef 
Ills  protection.  As  soon  as  the  king  appeared,  Themistocles 
took  that  monarch's  young  son  in  his  arms,  and,  seating  him- 
self amidst  the  household  gods,  informed  him  of  the  cause 
ot  his  arrival,  and  implored  his  clemency  and  protection. 
Admetus,  surprised  and  moved  with  compassion,  at  seeing  the 
greatest  man  of  Greece  an  humble  suppliant  at  his  feet,  rais- 
ed him  immediately  from  the  ground,  and  promised  him  pro- 
tection. Accordingly,  when  the  Athenians  and  Lacedsemoni- 
ans  came  to  demand  him,  he  refused  absolutely  to  deliver  up 
a  person  who  had  made  his  palace  an  asylum,  in  the  firm  per- 
suasion that  it  would  aflbrd  him  safety  and  protection. 

Thus,  continuing  to  spend  the  close  of  his  life  in  indolence 
and  retirement,  having  learned  to  pardon  and  despise  the  in 
gratitude  of  his  country,  he  expected  at  least  their  forgiveness. 
liut  the  Athenians  and  Lacedemonians,  would  not  suffer  him 
to  live  in  peace,  and  still  insisted  on  having  him  delivered  up. 
In  this  exigence,  as  the  king  found  himself  unable  to  protect 
his  illustrious  guest,  he  resolved  to  promote  his  escape. 

He  was,  therefore,  put  on  board  a  merchant  ship,  which  was 
sailing  to  Ionia,  and  his  quality  concealed,  with  the  utmost 
precaution.  A  storm  having  carried  the  ship  near  the  island 
ot  Nuxos,  then  besieged  by  the  Athenians,  the  imminent  dan 
ger  he  was  m  of  falling  into  their  hands,  compelled  him  to 
discover  himself  to  the  pilot,  and  prevailed  upon  him  to  steer 
lor  Asia ;  where,  arriving  at  Cumae,  a  city  of  ^olia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  he  was  from  thence  sent  under  a  strong  guard,  and  in 
one  of  those  covered  chariots,  in  which  the  Persians  were 
accustomed  to  convey  their  wives,  to  the  court  at  Sardis. 

When  the  unfortunate  exile  had  arrived  at  the  palace  of  the 
voluptuous  monarch  of  the  country,  he  waited  on  the  captain 
ot  the  guard,  requesting,  as  a  Grecian  stranger,  to  have  per- 
mission  to  speak  with  the  king.  The  officer  informed  him  of 
a  ceremony,  which  he  knew  was  insupportable  to  some  Greeks  • 
but,  without  which,  none  were  allowed  that  honour.  This 
was  to  fall  prostrate  before  the  Persian  monarch,  and  to  wor- 
ship hini,  as  the  living  image  of  the  gods  on  earth. 

Themistocles,  who  was  never  scrupulous  of  the  means  of 
obtaining  what  he  sought,  promised  to  comply;  and,  fallino 
on  his  face  before  the  king,  in  the  Persian  manner,  declared 
his  name,  his  country,  and  misfortunes.  "  I  have  done,"  cried 
he,  "  my  ungrateful  country  services  more  than  once,  and  I 
am  now  come  to  offer  those  services  to  you.  My  life  is  in 
your  hands ;  you  may  now  exert  your  clemency,  or  display 
rour  vengeance.     By  the  former,  you  will  preserve  a  faithful 


suppliant;  by  the  latter,  you  will  desti'oy  the  greatest  enemy 
'o  Greece." 

The  king  made  him  no  answer,  at  this  audience,  though  he 
was  struck  with  admiration  at  his  eloquence  and  intrepidity ; 
but  he  soon  gave  a  loose  to  his  joy  at  the  event.  He  told  his 
courtiers,  that  he  considered  the  arrival  of  Themistocles  as 
a  very  happy  accident,  and  wished  that  his  enemies  would 
for  ever  pursue  the  same  destructive  methods,  of  banishing 
from  among  them  all  the  good  and  wise. 

Even  his  satisfactions  were  continued  in  a  dream.  At  night, 
he  was  seen  to  start  from  his  sleep,  and  three  times  to  cry  out, 
**  I  have  got  Themistocles,  the  Athenian."  He  even  gave  him 
three  cities  for  his  support,  and  had  him  maintained  in  the 
utmost  affluence  and  splendour.  It  is  said,  that,  such  was  his 
favour  at  the  Persian  court,  and  so  great  was  the  considera- 
tion in  which  he  was  held  by  all  ranks  of  mankind,  that,  one 
iay  at  table,  he  was  heard  to  cry  out  to  his  wife  and  children, 
that  were  placed  there,  "  Children,  we  should  have  been  cer 
lainly  ruined,  if  we  had  not  been  formerly  undone." 

In  this  manner,  he  lived  in  affluence  and  contented  slavery, 
aiiiil  the  king  began  to  think  of  employing  his  talents,  in 
Rending  him  at  the  head  of  an  army  against  Athens.  Although 
Themistocles  professed  himself  Un  open  enemy  to  the  state, 
yet  he  still  harboured  a  latent  affection  for  it,  which  no  re- 
sentment could  remove.  The  consciousness  that  he  should 
be  instrumental  in  overturning  a  city  which  had  been  made 
to  flourish  by  his  counsels,  gave  him  inexpressible  pain.  He 
found  himself,  at  last,  unable  to  sustain  the  conflict  between 
his  gratitude  to  the  kiivg,  and  his  love  to  his  coiintry ;  and, 
therefore,  resolved  upon  dying,  as  the  only  means  of  escaping 
from  his  perplexity.  He,  therefore,  prepared  a  solemn  sacri  • 
fice,  to  which  he  invited  all  his  friends ;  when,  after  embra- 
cing them  all,  and  taking  a  last  farewell,  he  swallowed  poison, 
which  soon  put  an  end  to  his  life.  He  died  at  Magnesia,  aged 
*ixty-five  years,  the  greatest  part  of  which  he  had  spent  iis 
khe  intrigues  and  bustles  of  active  employment. 

Themistocles  seemed  to  unite  in  himself  all  the  prominent 
features  of  the  Greek  character;  sagacious,  eloquent,  and 
brave,  yet  unprincipled,  artful,  and  mercenary,  with  too  man'* 
virtues  ever  to  be  mentioned  as  a  despicable  character,  and 
too  many  defects  ever  to  be  considered  as  a  great  one. 

In  the  mean  time,  while  Themistocles  was  thus  become 
the  sport  of  fortune,  the  just  Aristides  attempted  a  nobler 
path  to  glory.  It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  com- 
mand of  Greece  had  passed  from  Sparta  to  the  Athenians ; 
wwi  it  was  agreed  among  the  body  of  th«  states,  that  their 


94 


THE  HISTORY 


common  treasure  for  defraying  the  expanses  of  the  war,  should 
be  Io(l,q;ed  in  the  island  of  Delos,  under  the  custody  of  a  ma»: 
of  a  clear  head  and  an  uncorrupt  heart.  The  great  question, 
therefore,  was,  where  to  find  a  man  to  be  trusted  with  so  im- 
portant a  charge,  and  steadfastly  known  to  prefer  the  public 
interest  to  his  own.  In  this  general  disquisition,  all  parties 
cast  their  eyes  on  Aristides,of  whom  Themistocles  used  jest- 
ingly to  say,  that  he  had  no  other  merit  than  that  of  a  strong 
box,  in  keeping  safely  what  was  committed  to  his  charge. 

The  conduct  of  Aristides,  in  his  discharge  of  this  duty 
served  to  confirm  the  great  opinion  mankind  had  formed  of 
his  integrity.  He  presided  over  the  treasury,  with  the  care 
of  a  father  over  his  family ;  and  the  caution  of  a  miser,  over 
what  he  holds  dearer  than  himself.  No  man  complained  of 
his  administration ;  and  no  part  of  the  public  money  was  ex- 
hausted in  vain.  He,  who  thus  contributed  to  make  govern- 
ment rich,  was  himself  very  poor ;  and  so  far  was  he  from  be- 
ing ashamed  of  poverty,  that  he  considered  it  as  glorious  to 
him,  as  all  the  trophies  and  victories  he  had  won. 

It  happened,  on  a  certain  occasion,  that  Callias,  an  intimate 
friend  and  relation  of  Aristides,  was  summoned  before  the 
judges,  for  some  offence ;  and  one  of  the  chief  objections  al- 
leged against  him,  was,  that,  while  he  rolled  in  affluence  and 
luxury,  he  suffered  his  friend  and  relation,  Aristides,  to  re- 
main in  poverty  and  want.  Upon  this  occasion,  Aristides 
Wis  cited ;  when  it  appeared  that  Callias  had  frequently  of- 
fered to  share  his  fortune  with  him,  but  that  he  declined  the 
benefit ;  asserting,  that  he  only  might  be  said  to  want,  who 
permits  his  appetites  to  transgress  the  bounds  of  his  income ; 
and  that  he  who  could  dispense  with  a  few  things,  thus  ren- 
dered himself  more  like  the  gods,  who  want  for  nothing. 

In  this  manner,  he  lived,  just  in  his  public,  and  independent 
in  his  private  capacity.  His  house  was  a  public  school  for 
virtue ;  and  was  open  to  all  young  Athenians,  who  sought 
wisdom,  or  were  ambitious  of  power.  He  gave  them  the 
kindest  reception ;  heard  them  with  patience ;  instructed 
them  with  familiarity,  and  endeavoured,  above  all  things,  to 
give  them  a  just  value  for  themselves.  Among  the  rest  of 
his  disciples,  Cimon,  who  afterwards  made  such  a  distinguish- 
ed figure  in  the  state,  was  one  of  the  foremost 

History  does  not  mention  the  exact  time  or  place  of  his 
death,  but  it  pays  the  most  glorious  testimony  to  his  disinter- 
ested character,  in  telling  us,  that  he  who  had  the  absolute 
disposal  of  all  the  public  treasures,  died  poor.  It  is  even  as- 
serted, that  he  did  not  leave  money  enough  behind  him,  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  his  funeral;   but  that  the  government 


OF  GREECE. 


95 


was  obKged  to  bear  the  cliarge  of  it,  and  to  maintain  his 
family. 

His  daughters  were  married,  and  his  son  subsisted,  at  the 
expense  of  the  public ;  and  some  of  his  grand-children  were 
maintained  by  a  pension,  equal  to  that  which  such  received 
as  had  been  victorious  at  the  Olympic  games.  But  the  great- 
est honour  paid  by  his  countrymen  to  his  memory,  was  in 
giving  him  the  title  of  Just;  a  character  far  superior  to  all 
the  empty  titles  of  wisdom  or  conquest ;  since  fortune  or  ac- 
cident may  confer  wisdom  or  valour,  but  all  the  virtues  of 
morality  are  solely  of  our  own  making. 

Athens  being,  in  this  manner,  deprived  of  the  counsels  and 
integrity  of  her  two  greatest  magistrates,  room  was  now 
made  for  younger  ambition  to  step  forward ;  and  Cimon,  the 
son  of  Miltiades,  promised  to  fill  the  scene  with  dignity  and 
honour.  Cimon  had  spent  his  youth  in  excesses,  from  wtiicli 
It  was  thought  no  effort  could  extricate  him.  When  he  first 
offered  to  gain  public  favour,  he  was  so  ill  received  by  the 
people,  prejudiced  against  him  by  his  former  follies,  that  he 
suffered  the  most  cruel  neglect. 

But,  though  he  was  possessed  of  courage  and  abilities,  he 
began  to  lay  aside  all  thoughts  of  the  public,  contented  with 
only  humbler  satisfactions.  But  Aristides,  perceiving  that 
his  dissolute  turn  of  mind  was  united  with  many  great  qual- 
ifications, inspired  him  with  fresh  hopes :  and  persuaded  him 
once  more  to  renew  the  onset.  He  now,  therefore,  ^entirely 
changed  his  conduct,  and,  laying  aside  his  juvenile  follies, 
aimed  at  nothing  but  what  was  great  and  noble.  Thus,  he 
became  not  inferior  to  Miltiades  in  courage,  to  Themisto- 
cles in  prudence,  and  was  not  far  surpassed  by  Aristides 
in  integrity. 

The  first  command,  of  any  note,  to  which  Cimon  was  ap- 
pointed, was  of  the  fleet  destined  to  scour  the  Asiatic  seas. 
VVhen  he  had  arrived,  with  his  fleet,  at  Caria,  all  the  Grecian' 
cities  on  the  sea-coast, immediately  submitted;  and  the  rest 
which  were  garrisoned  by  the  Persians,  were  taken  by  storm! 
Thus,  by  his  conduct,  as  well  as  by  his  intelligence,  the  whole 
country,  from  Ionia  to  Pamphylia,  declared  against  the  pow- 
er of  Persia;  and  joined  in  the  association  with  Greece. 

The  capture  of  the  city  Eion  is  too  remarkable,  to  be  pass- 
ed over  in  silence.  The  governor  was  Boges ;  who  held  it 
for  his  master,  the  king  of  Persia,  with  a  firm  resolution  to 
save  it,  or  perish  in  its  fall.  It  was  in  his  power  to  have  capitu- 
ulated  with  the  besiegers ;  and  Cimon  had  often  offered  hiuj 
very  advantageous  terms :  but,  preferring  his  honour  to  hit 
safety,  he  declined  all  treaty,  and  defended  his  station  with 


96 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


y? 


incredible  fury,  till  he  found  it  no  longer  possible  to  continue 
the  defence.  Being,  at  last,  in  the  utmost  want  of  provi- 
sions, he  threw  all  his  treasures  from  the  walls,  into  the 
river  Strymon;  after  which,  killing  his  wife  and  children,  he 
laid  them  upon  a  pile,  which  he  had  erected  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  then  setting  fire  to  the  whole,  rushed  into  the 
midst  of  the  flames,  and  expired. 

Cimon,  thus  proceeding  from  one  conquest  to  another,  was 
at  last  informed,  that  the  whole  Persian  licet  was  anchored  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurymedon ;  where  they  expected  a 
reinforcement  of  ships  from  Phoenicia,  and  therefore  defer- 
red an  engagement  till  then.  The  Athenian  general,  however, 
resolved,  if  possible,  to  prevent  this  junction ;  and  ranged 
his  gallies  in  such  a  posture,  as  to  accomplish  this,  and  yet 
compel  the  enemy  to  engage.  It  was  in  vain,  that  the  Per- 
sian fleet  retired  farther  up  the  mouth  of  the  river :  the 
Athenians  still  pursued  them,  until  they  were  obliged  to  pre- 
pare for  battle. 

The  Persians,  having  the  superiority  of  a  hundred  sail, 
maintained  the  conflict,  for  some  time,  with  great  intrepidity ; 
but,  being  at  last  forced  on  shore,  those  who  came  first 
threw  themselves  upon  land,  leaving  their  empty  vessels  to 
the  enemy.  Thus,  besides  what  were  sunk,  the  Athenians 
took  above  two  hundred  ships ;  and  following  their  success 
upon  land,  the  Greek  soldiers  jumping  from  their  ships,  and 
setting  up  a  shout,  ran  furiously  upon  the  enemy,  who  sus- 
tained the  first  shock  with  great  resolution.  But,  at  length, 
thf  Grecian  valour  overcame  the  enemy's  desperation;  a 
total  rout  of  the  Persians  ensued ;  numbers  were  made  pris- 
oiiers;  and  a  great  quantity  of  plunder  seized,  which  was 
found  in  their  tents.  Thus,  the  Greeks  obtained  a  double 
victory,  by  sea  and  land,  upon  the  same  occasion. 

CUmon,  having  returned  successful  from  this  expedition, 
resolved  to  expend  those  treasures  which  he  had  taken  in 
war,  in  beautifying  and  adorning  his  native  city.  A  taste 
for  architecture  had,  for  some  time,  been  entering  into 
Greece;  and  the  Athenians  gave  the  world  examples  in  this 
art,  which  surpass  all  others,  to  this  very  day. 

Victories,  so  very  humiliating  to  the  pride  of  Persia,  in- 
duced that  empire  at  last  to  think  of  peace ;  and,  after  some 
lime,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  in  which  the  terms  were 
very  honourable  on  the  side  of  Greece.  It  was  stipulated, 
that  the  Grecian  cities  in  Asia  should  be  left  in  quiet  enjoy- 
ment of  their  liberty ;  and  that  both  the  land  and  sea  forces  of 
the  Persians  should  be  kept  at  such  a  distance  from  the  Gre 
cian  seas,  as  not  to  create  the  smallest  suspicion. 


\^ 


Thus,  entirely  ended  the  Persian  war,  which  had  kept  the 
Grecian  states  united,  and  called  all  their  abilities  into  exer- 
tion.    From  that  time  forward,  those  enmities  which  had  bcei 
dissipated  upon  the  common  foe,  began  to  be  turned  upor 
each  other :  they  lost  all  warlike  spirit,  in  petty  jealousies 
and,  entirely  softened  by  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  peace, 
prepared  themselves  for  submission,  to  the  first  invader  of 
their  freedom. 

About  this  time,  the  study  of  philosophy  was  carried  from 
Ionia  to  Athens,  by  Athenagoras,  the  Clazomenian.  Poetry 
was,  at  the  same  time,  cultivated  by  Simonides,  of  the  island 
of  Ceos;  who  sung  the  exploits  of  his  country,  in  a  style  be- 
coming their  valour.  His  writings,  however,  have  not  had 
merit  enough  to  preserve  them  from  oblivion  ;  and  it  may  be 
asserted,  that  mankind  rarely  suffer  any  work  to  be  lost,  which 
tends  to  make  them  more  wise,  or  more  happy. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

From  the  Peace  mth  Persia,  to  the  Peace  of  Nicias, 

The  state  of  Athens  being  thus,  in  a  great  measure,  freed 
from  its  fear  of  a  foreign  enemy,  began  to  cherish  intestine  ani- 
mosities ;  and  its  citizens  laboured,  with  every  art,  to  supplant 
each  other,  in  aiming  at  places  of  trust  and  authority.  Besides 
Cimon,  who,  by  general  consent,  had  been  appointed  to  con- 
duct the  fleet  and  army,  others  endeavoured  to  take  the  lead 
at  home,  and  to  govern,  with  less  hazard,  the  operations  oi 

the  state. 

The  foremost  in  this  attempt,  was  Pei  icles,  who  was  much 
younger  than  Cimon,  and  of  a  quite  different  character.  Peri- 
cles was  descended  from  the  greatest  and  most  illustrious  fami- 
lies of  Athens:  his  father,  Xanthippus,  defeated  the  Persians 
at  Mycale ;  and  his  mother,  Agarista,  was  niece  to  Calisthenes, 
who  expelled  the  tyrants,  and  established  a  popular  govern- 
ment in  Athens.  He  had  early  thoughts  of  rising  in  the  state ; 
and  took  lessons  from  Anaxagoras,  in  the  philosophy  of  na- 
ture. He  studied  politics,  with  great  assiduity ;  but  particu- 
larly devoted  himself  to  eloquence  ;  which,  in  a  popular  state, 
he  considered  as  the  fountain  of  all  promotion.  His  studies 
were  crowned  with  success ;  the  poets,  his  contemporaries, 
affirm,  that  his  eloquence  was  so  powerful,  that,  like  thunder, 
it  shook  and  astonished  all  Greece.  He  had  the  art  of  uniting 
force  and  beauty;  there  was  no  resisting  the  strength  of  his 
argume  cs,  or  the  sweetness  of  his  delivery. 

Thicydides,  his  great  opponent,  was  often  heard  to  say, 


93 


THE,  HISTOUY 


that,  though  he  had  often  overthrown  him,  the  power  of  his 
persuasion  was  such,  that  the  audience  could  never  perceive 
him  fallen.  To  this  eloquence,  he  added  also  a  thorough  in- 
sight  into  human  nature,  as  well  as  a  perfect  acquaintance 
with  the  disposition  of  his  auditors.  It  was  a  constant  say- 
ing with  him,  to  himself,  "  Remember,  Pericles,  thou  art  go- 
ing to  speak  to  men  born  in  the  arms  of  liberty ;"— and  still 
he  took  care  to  flatter  them  in  their  ruling  passion. 

He  resembled  the  tyrant  Pisistratus,  not  only  in  the  sweet- 
ness  of  his  voice,  but  the  features  of  his  face,  and  his  whole 
air  and  manner.     To  these  natural  and  acquired  graces,  he 
added  those  of  fortune :  he  was  very  rich,  and  had  an  exten 
su-e  alhunce  with  all  the  most  powerful  families  of  the  state. 

Ihe  deatk  of  Aristides,  the  banishment  of  Themistocles, 
and  the  absence  of  Cimon,  gave  opportunities  to  his  growing 
ambition.  Yet  he  at  first  concealed  his  designs,  with  the  most 
cautious  reserv  e ;  till,  finding  the  people  growing  more  and 
more  in  his  interest,  he  set  himself  at  their  head;  and  op- 
posed the  principal  men  of  the  state,  with  great  appearance 
oi  disinterested  virtue. 

The  chief  obstacle  to  his  rise,  was  Cimon,  whose  candour 
and  liberality  had  gained  him  a  numerous  party  of  all  ranks 
and  denominations.  In  opposition  to  him,  Pericles  called  in 
popular  assistance ;  and,  by  expending  the  public  money  iu 
bribes,  largesses,  and  other  distributions,  easily  gained  the 
muUitude  to  espouse  his  interests.  Thus,  having  laid  a  se- 
cure foundation  in  popularity,  he  next  struck  at  the  council 
ol  the  Areopagus,  composed  of  the  most  respectable  persons 
ol  al  Athens;  and,  by  the  assistance  of  Ephialtes,  another 
popular  champion,  he  drew  away  most  causes  from  the  coiyni. 
zance  ol  that  court;  and  brought  the  whole  order  into  con- 
tempt.  In  this  manner,  while  Cimon  was  permitted  to  con- 
duct the  war  abroad,  he  managed  all  the  supplies  at  home  • 
and  as  it  was  his  inferest  to  keep  Cimon  at  a  distance,  he 
look  cure  to  provide  him  with  a  sufficiency  of  forei^  em- 
ployment. ° 

In  this  state  of  parties  at  Athens,  an  insurrection  of  the 
lleiotae,  Lacedaemonian  slaves,  gave  an  opportunity  of  tryinj? 
il»e  strength  of  each.  These  men,  who  had,  for  several  cen- 
tunes,  groaned  under  the  yoke  of  their  countrymen ;  and  had 
.>een  excluded  from  all  hopes  of  preferment,  merely  by  the 
influence  of  an  unjust  precedent  to  their  prejudice,  at  last 
look  up  arms  against  their  masters,  and  threatened  no  less 
than  the  destruction  of  the  Spartan  state.  In  this  extremity 
the  Lacedaemonians  sent  to  Athens,  to  implore  succour ;  but 
this  was  opposed  by  Ephialtes,  who  declared  that  it  would  be 


OF  GREECE. 


99 


* 


no  way  advisable  to  aid  them,  or  to  make  a  rival  city  power- 
ful by  their  assistance. 

On  the  other  hand,  Cimon  espoused  the  cause  of  Sparta ; 
declaring,  that  it  was  weak  and  inconsistent  to  maim  the 
Grecian  confederacy,  by  suffering  one  of  its  members  to  be 
tamely  lopped  away.  His  opinion,  for  this  time,  prevailed : 
he  was  permitted  to  march  forth,  at  the  head  of  a  numerous 
body,  to  their  relief;  and  the  insurrection  was  quelled,  at  their 
approach.  But,  shortly  afterwards,  the  mischief  broke  out 
afresh.  The  Helotes  got  possession  of  the  strong  fortress  of 
Itliome,  and  the  Spartans  again  petitioned  for  Athenian  aid. 

It  was  now,  that  the  party  of  Pericles  was  found  to  prevail, 
and  the  Lacedaemonians  were  refused  a  compliance  with  their 
demands.  Thus,  left  to  finish  the  war  with  their  insurgent 
slaves,  in  the  best  manner  they  could,  after  besieging  Ithome, 
which  held  out  for  ten  years,  they  at  last  became  masters  of 
it,  sparing  the  lives  of  those  who  defended  it,  upon  condition 
of  their  leaving  Peloponnesus,  for  ever. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  refusal,  on  the  side  of  Athens,  and 
some  indignities,  said  to  have  been  received  on  the  side  of 
Lacedaemon,  revived  a  jealousy  which  had  long  subsisted  be- 
tween these  rival  states,  and  which  continued  thenceforward 
to  operate,  with  greater  or  diminished  influence,  until  both 
were  utterly  unable  to  withstand  the  smallest  efforts  of  for- 

•  •  • 


eign  invasion. 


The  first  instance  the  Athenians  gave  of  their  resentment, 
was  to  banish  Cimon,  who  had  been  a  favourer  of  the  Spartan 
cause,  for  ten  years,  from  the  city.  They  next  dissolved  their 
alliance  with  Sparta;  and  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  A 
gives,  the  professed  enemies  of  the  former.  The  slaves  of 
Ithome  were  also  taken  under  Athenian  protection;  and  set- 
tled, with  their  families,  at  Naupactus.  But,  what  contribut- 
ed to  widen  the  breach  still  more,  the  city  of  Megara,  re- 
volting from  its  alliance  with  Sparta,  was  protected  and  gar- 
risoned by  the  Athenians  :  thus,  was  laid  the  foundation  of  an 
inveterate  hatred,  which  ended  in  mutual  destruction. 

As,  in  the  beginning  of  all  enmities,  several  treaties  were 

entered  into,  and  several  leagues  concluded,  till  at  last  they 

came  to  a  formal  rupture.     Two  pitched  battles  between  the 

Athenians  and  Corinthians,  in  which  each  side  was  alternate 

ly  victorious,  sounded  the  alarm.     Another  followed,  between 

the  Athenians  and  Spartans,  at  Tangara;  in  which,  Cimon, 

forgetting  the  injury  he  had  sustained  from  his  country,  came 

in  to  its  assistance ;  but  the  Athenians  suffered  a  defeat.     In 

a  month  or  two  afterwards,  the  disgrace  was  repaired,  and 

the  Athenians  were,  in  their  turn,  victorious.     The  coquet 

12  ^ 


100 


THE  HISTOKY 


OF  GllEECE. 


101 


of  Cimon  again  restored  him  to  public  favour :  he  was  re- 
called from  banishment,  in  ^yhich  he  had  spent  five  years ; 
and  it  was  Pericles,  his  rival,  who  first  proposed  the  decree. 

The  earliest  use  Cimon  made  of  his  return,  was,  to  recon- 
cile the  two  rival  states  to  each  other ;  and  this  was  so  far 
effected,  outwardly,  that  a  truce  for  five  years  was  concluded 
between  them.  This  led  the  way  to  exerting  the  power  ol 
the  state,  upon  a  more  distant  enemy 

By  his  advice,  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  sail  was  equipped, 
and  destined,  under  his  command,  to  conquer  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  He  quickly  sailed,  overran  the  island,  and  laid  siege 
to  Citium.  Here,  being  either  wounded  by  the  defendants^ 
or  wasted  by  sickness,  he  began  to  perceive  the  approaches 
of  dissolution ;  but,  still  mindful  of  his  duty,  he  ordered  his. 
attendants  to  conceal  his  death,  until  their  schemes  werf 
crowned  with  success.  His  injunction  was  strictly  obeyed. 
Thirty  days  after  he  was  dead,  the  army,  which  still  supposed 
itself  under  his  command,  gained  a  signal  victory :  thus,  he 
died,  not  only  in  the  arms  of  conquest,  but  gained  battles 
merely  by  the  efficacy  of  his  name. 

With  Cimon,  in  a  great  measure,  expired  the  spirit  of  gIo» 
ry  in  Athens.  As  he  was  the  last,  so  he  was  the  most  sue 
cessful,  of  the  Grecian  heroes.  Such,  was  the  terror  of  thf 
Persians  at  his  name,  that  they  universally  deserted  the  sea 
coasts,  and  would  not  come  within  four  hundred  furlongs  of 
the  place  where  he  could  be  possibly  expected. 

Pericles,  being  now,  by  the  death  of  Cimon,  freed  from  a 
potent  rival,  set  himself  to  complete  the  work  of  ambitiou 
which  he  had  begun;  and,  by  dividing  the  conquered  lands, 
amusirig  the  people  with  shows,  and  adorning  the  city  with 
public  buildings,  he  gained  such  an  ascendancy  over  the  minds 
of  the  people,  that  he  might  be  said  to  have  obtained  a  mo- 
narchal power  in  Athens. 

He  found  means  to  maintain,  for  eight  months  in  the  year, 
a  great  nufjiber  of  poor  citizens,  l)y  putting  them  on  board  the 
lleet,  consisting  of  sixty  ships,  which  he  fitted  out  every  year 
He  planted  several  colonies  in  the  many  places  which  had 
lately  submitted  to  Athens.  By  this,  he  cl'iared  the  city  of  a 
great  nimibcr  of  idle  persons,  who  were  ever  ready  to  disturb 
his  government;  and  were,  at  the  same  time,  unable  to  sub- 
sist themselves,  by  reason  of  his  oppression. 

But  the  public  buildings  which  he  raised,  the  ruins  of  some 
of  which  exist  to  this  day,  are  sufficient  to  convey  his  name 
to  posterity.  It  is  surprising,  tihat,  in  a  city  not  noted  for  the 
number  of  its  inhabitants,  and  in  so  short  a  space  of  time  a> 
0\at  of  his  administration,  such  laborious,exponsive,and  mag* 


F 


flificent  works,  could  be  executed.     All  the  arts  of  architec 
ture,  sculpture,  and  painting,  were  exhausted  in  his  designs; 
and   what  still  remain,  continue,  to  this  hour,  as  inimitable 
models  of  perfection 

To  effect  these  great  works,  he,  in  some  measure,  had  re- 
course to  injustice;  and  availed  himself  of  those  treasures 
which  had  been  supplied  by  Greece  for  carrying  on  the  war 
with  Persia:  and  which,  having  been  lodged  at  Delos,he  had 
address  enough  to  get  transported  to  Athens,  where  he  ex- 
pended them  in  securing  his  own  power,  by  all  the  arts  of 
popularity. 

By  these  means,  Athens  became  so  much  admired  and  en* 
vied  by  her  neighbours,  that  it  went  by  the  name  of  Orxa 
ment;  and,  when  it  was  urged  that  the  common  treasure  was 
squandered  away  in  these  works  of  show,  Pericles  answered, 
that  the  people  of  Athens  were  not  accountable  to  any,  for 
their  conduct;  for  they  had  the  best  right  to  the  treasures  of 
the  confederate  states,  who  took  the  greatest  care  to  defend 
them.  He  added,  that  it  was  fit  ingenious  artisans  should 
have  their  share  of  the  public  money,  since  there  was  still 
enough  left  for  carrying  on  the  war. 

These  were  rather  the  arguments  of  power,  than  persua- 
sion •"  of  a  man  already  in  possession,  than  willing,  upon  just 
grounds,  to  relinquish  what  he  had  claimed.  It  was  seen,  not 
only  by  the  wiser  citizens,  but  by  all  the  states  of  Greece,  thai 
he  was  daily  striding  into  power ;  and  would,  as  Pisistratus 
had  done  before,  make  the  people  the  fabricators  of  their  own 
chains.  For  remedying  this  growing  evil,  the  heads  of  the 
city  opjioscd  Thucydides  to  his  growing  power;  and  attempt- 
ed to  restrain  his  career,  by  opposing  eloquence  to  popu 

larity. 

Thucydides  was  brother-in-law  to  Cimon,  and  had  display- 
ed his  wisdom  on  numberless  occasions.  He  was  not  pos- 
sessed of  the  military  talents  of  his  rival ;  but  his  eloquence 
gave  him  a  very  powerful  influence  over  the  people.  As  he 
never  left  the  city,  he  still  combated  Pericles,  in  all  his  mea- 
sures; and,  for  a  while,  brought  down  the  ambition  of  his 
rival  to  the  standard  of  reason. 

But  his  efforts  could  not  long  avail,  against  the  persuasive 
power  and  corrupt  influence  of  his  opponent.  Pericles  every 
day  gained  new  ground,  till  he  at  last  found  himself  possess- 
ed of  the  whole  authority  of  the  state.  It  was,  then,  that  he 
oegan  to  change  his  behaviour;  and,  from  acting  the  fawning 
and  humble  suppliant,  he  assumed  the  haughty  airs  of  roy- 
alty.   He  now  no  longer  submitted  himself  to  the  caprice  of 


Ilf 


102 


TJIE  JllSTOUY 


the  people :  hut  changed  the  democratic  state  of  Athens  into 
a  kind  of  monarchy. 

He  would  sometimes,  indeed,  win  his  fellow-citizens  over 
to  his  wiil ;  hut,  at  other  times,  when  he  found  them  obsti- 
natc,  he  would,  in  a  manner,  compel  them  to  consult  their 
own  mterests.  Thus,  between  power  and  persuasion,  public 
prolusion  and  private  economy,  political  falsehood,  and  pri- 
vate  integrity,  Pericles  became  the  principal  ruler  at  Athens- 
and  all  such  as  were  his  enemies,  became  the  enemies  of  the 
state. 

It  was  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  this  magnificent  state 
ol  Athens  was  not  a  little  displeasing  to  the  rival  states  of 
Greece,  especially  as  its  state  of  splendour  was,  in  some  mea- 
sure formed  from  their  contributions.     The  Spartans,  par. 
iicularly,  still  continued  to   regard  this  growing  city  with 
envy;  and  soon  showed  their  displeasure,  by  refusing  to  send 
deputies  to  Athens,  to  consult  about  repairing  the  temple 
which  had  been  burnt  down  during  the  wars  with  Persia      ' 
The  successes  of  Pericles  against  the  enemy  in  Thrace,  still 
more  increased  their  uneasiness ;  and  particularly,  when  sail- 
ing  round  Peloponnesus  with  a  hundred  ships,  he  protected 
the  allies  of  Greece,  and  granted  their  cities  all  they  thout^h't 
ht  to  ask  him.     These  successes  raised  the  indignation  of 
bparta,  while  they  intoxicated  Athens  with  ideas  of  ambition 
and  opened  new  inlets  for  meditating  conquest. 

The  citizens  now  began  to  talk  of  attempts  upon  Ei?ypf 
ol  attacking  the  maritime  provinces  of  Persia;  of  carrying 
their  arms  into  Sicily,  and  of  extending  their  conquest  from 
Ita  y  to  Carthage.  These  were  views  beyond  their  power, 
and  ma»'ked  rather  their  pride,  than  their  ability. 

An  expedition  against  Samos,  in  favour  of  the  Melisians 
wro  iiad  craved  their  assistance,  was  the  beginning  of  this 
rupture,  which  never  after  was  closed.  It  is  pretended,  that 
1  ericlcs  fomented  this  war,  to  please  a  famous  courtezan, 
named  Aspasia,  of  whom  he  was  particularly  enamoured 

After  several  events  and  battles,  not  worth  the  reirard'of 
history,  Pericles  besieged  the  capital  of  Samos,  with  tortoises 
and  battering  rams  ;  which  was  the  first  time  these  military 
engines  had  been  employed  in  sieges.  The  Samians,  after 
suffering  a  nine  months'  siege,  surrendered.  Pericles  razed 
their  walls;  dispossessed  them  of  their  ships,  and  demanded 
immense  sums,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Flushed 
with  this  success,  he  returned  to  Athens ;  buried  all  those 
who  lost  their  lives  in  the  siege  in  the  most  splendid  man- 
ner, and  pronounced  their  funeral  oration. 
Abrupture,  between  the  Athenians  and  Lacedsemonians, 


OF  GREECE. 


103 


A   M    seemed  now  inevitable.     Pericles,  diercf.re,  to  antici- 
3572     P^^^  ^^^^  designs  of  his  rival  state,  advised  that  aid 
should  be  sent  to  the  people  of  Corcyra,  whom  the 
Corinthians,  assisted  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  had  invaded. 

As  the  quarrel  between  the  Corcyreans  and  Corinihians, 
gave  rise  to  the  great  Peloponnesian  war,  which,  soon  after- 
wards, involved  all  Greece,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a 
slight  account  of  its  origin.  Epidamus  was  a  colony  of  the 
Corcyreans,  which,  growing  first  rich,  and  then  factious,  ban- 
ished the  chief  of  her  citizens.  The  exiles,  joining  with  the 
lUyrians,  brought  the  Epidamians  so  low,  that  they  were 
obliged  to  send  to  Corcyra,  their  parent  city,  for  assistance. 
The  Corcyreans  rejecting  their  request,  they  had  recou»i-se  to 
Corinth  ;  and,  giving  themselves  up  to  that  state,  were  taken 
under  its  protection.  This,  however,  the  Corcyreans  began 
to  resent;  and,  having  been  remiss  in  affording  assistance 
themselves,  resolved  to  punish  such  as  should  offer  any.  A 
rupture  ensued,  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyreans ; 
some  naval  engagements  followed,  in  which  the  Corcyreans 
being  worsted,  had  recourse,  as  has  already  been  observed,  to 
the  Athenians  for  support ;  who  sent  some  naval  succours, 
which,  however,  proved  of  no  efficacy  in  their  defence. 

From  this  war,  arose  another.  Pptidaea,  a  city  belonging 
to  Athens,  declaring  for  Corinth,  these  two  states,' from  being 
accessaries,  became  principals ;  and  drew  their  forces  into 
the  field,  near  Potidaea,  where  a  battle  ensued,  in  which  the 
Athenians  had  the  victory.  It  was  in  this  battle,  that  Socrates 
saved  the  life  of  Alcibiades,  his  pupil ;  and,  after  the  battle 
was  over,  procured  him  the  prize  of  valour,  which  he  him- 
self had  more  justly  earned. 

In  consequence  of  this  victory,  Potidaea  was  soon  after- 
wards besieged  ;  and  the  Corinthians  complained  to  the  states 
of  Greece,  against  the  Athenians,  for  having  infringed  the 
articles  of  peace.  The  Lacedaemonians,  in  particular,  ad- 
mitted them  to  an  audience ;  where  the  deputies  of  Corinth 
endeavoured  to  rouse  them  into  a  sense  of  their  danger,  from 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Athens ;  and  threatened,  if  left  un- 
protected, to  put  themselves  under  the  command  of  a  power, 
strong  enough  to  grant  them  protection  and  safety. 

After  hearing  what  the  Athenians  had  to  reply,  the  Spar- 
tans came  to  a  close  debate  among  themselves,  wherein  it 
was  universally  agreed,  that  the  Athenians  were  the  aggres- 
sors ;  and  that  they  should  be  reduced  to  a  just  sense  of  their 
duty.  But  the  dispute  was,  whether  war  should  be  immedi- 
ately declared  against  them,  or  remonstrances  made  to  bring 
them  to  reason. 


I- 


*^'*  THE  HI3TORV 

Archidamus  one  of  their  kings,  a  man  of  prudence  an^ 
temper  was  of  opinion  that  they  were  not,  af  this  t?me  a 
match  for  Athens  ;  and  endeavoured  to  dissuade  them  fiom 
"ushing  ,„to  a  thoughtless  and  improvident  war.  BuTsthe- 
neaues,  one  of  the  ephori,  urged  the  contrary  jaUegnt 
hat  when  once  they  had  received  an  injury,  they  oua-hf  n^ 
to  deUherate;  but  that  revenge  should  fol'^^w  insult  Ac 
cordmgly,  a  war  was  declared,\nd  all  the  confeder^e's  J^^ 
made  acquainted  with  the  resolution  cueraies  wei» 

In  order  to  give  a  colour  of  justice  to  their  desifms  the 
Lacedsenion.ans  began  by  sending  ambassadors  to  Es- 
and   while  they  made  preparations  for  acting  w  U>  v  gTur 
sun  kept  up  a  show  of  seeking  redress  by  treaty.     The^re 
wholn   "«^,A"\'^"!f"»  the  expulsion  from\heir  c  ty,  of  som' 
who  had  profaned  the  temple  of  Minerva,  at  Cylon  •  thev  de 
manded,  that  the  siege  of  Potidjea  should  be  raised  and  th!i 
G^e^cf  """^  '''°""*  "''^  '°  '"f''"S«  "pon  thriTtL'':; 
Pericles  now  saw,  that,  as  he  had  led  the  Athenians  into  a 
^ar.  It  was  incumbent  on  him  to  inspire  them  whh  coura« 
to  prosecute  It  with  success.     He  showed  his  "ountryme? 
that  even  trifles,  extorted  from  them  with  an  air  of  comS' 
were  in  themselves,  a  sufficient  ground  for  war    that  thev 
plight  promise  themselves  a  considerable  share  k  success 

leTs  Ihat'IheTh  d  "h-  •=°"f'='»"^»<=d  -"""Is  of  their  oppo-' 
J!h  ,K  •       -7  ^^  Shipping  to  invade  their  enemies'  coasts 

^  land.""       '       "^  "'^"  '"'"''«'^'''  """"^  »°'  easil/be  taken" 

ih^^  <=°"^'"<le''.  with  telling  them  the  absolute  necessity 
here  was  for  war ;  and  that  the  more  cheerfully  they  under 
took  It,  the  easier  it  would  come  to  a  happy  conclusion    Thl; 
he  greatest  honours  had  generally  ac??u'ed  to  theT*  sTate 
from  the  greatest  extremities ;  that  this  might  serve  to  an?' 
mate  them  in  its  defence,  so  as  to  transmit  ft  wi  h  undimi"n 
ished  honour  to  posterity.  unaimin- 

The  people,  giddy,  fond  of  change,  and  unterrified  hv  ^.. 
Unt  dangers,  readily  came  into  his' opinionTand  to  rive 
«>me  colour  to  their  proceeding,  sent  evasive  knswers  toT. 
Spartan  demand;  and  concluded  with  asserting  *Lattlev 
desired  to  adjust  all  differences  by  treaty,  as  beh^g  u„wil  5 
to  begin  a  war ;  but,  in  case  of  danger,  would  defend  them^ 
selves,  with  desperate  resolution. 

Thus,  the  people,  from  their  love  of  change,  entered  hastilv 
into  the  war;  but  Pericles  was  personally  interested  in  I 
Hechration.    He  was  deeply  indebted  to  the  S,  and  kne!. 


OF  GREECE. 


105 


that  a  time  of  peace  was  the  only  opportunity  in  which  he 
could  be  called  upon  to  settle  his  accounts. 

It  is  said,  that  Alcibiades,  his  nephew,  seeing  him  one  day 
very  pensive,  and  demanding  the  reason,  was  answered,  that 
ac  was  considering  how  to  make  up  his  accounts.  "  You  had 
better,"  said  he,  "  consider  how  to  avoid  being  accountable." 

Besides  this,  Pericles  finding  no  happiness  in  domestic  so 
ciety,  gave  himself  up  to  the  allurements  of  his  mistress  As- 
pasia,  whose  wit  and  vivacity  had  captivated  all  the  poets 
and  philosophers  of  the  age ;  even  Socrates  himself  not  ex- 
cepted. She  was  inclined  to  oppose  the  Spartan  state ;  and 
be,  in  some  measure,  is  thought  to  have  acquiesced  in  her 
advice.  i>    x.-\    rio;ftvi   a-     -fci'. 

War  being  thus  mutually  resolved  on,  the  first  dawn  of  suc- 
cess seemed  to  offer  in  favour  of  Athens  ;  the  city  of  Plataea 
which  had  lately  declared  for  them,  was  surprised  by  three 
hundred  Thebans,  who  were  let  in  by  a  party  of  the  town 
who  joined  in  the  conspiracy.  But  some  of  the  citizens,  whi^^ 
had  espoused  the  opposite  interests,  falling  upon  them,  in  the 
night,  killed  a  part,  and  took  two  hundred  prisoners ;  who, 
a  little  time  after,  were  put  to  death. 

The  Athenians,  as  soon  as  the  news  was  brought  of  this 
\ction,  sent  succours  and  provisions  thither,  and  cleared  the 
tity  of  all  persons  who  were  incapable  of  bearing  arms.  From 
[his  time,  all  Greece  appeared  in  motion,  every  part  of  it  took 
a  side  in  the  common  quarrel,  except  a  few  stales  who  con- 
tinued neuter,  till  they  should  see  the  event  of  the  war. 

The  majority  were  for  the  Lacedaemonians,  as  being  the 
deliverers  of  Greece  ;  and  espoused  their  interests  with  ar 
dour.  On  their  side,  were  ranged  the  Achaians,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Pellcne  excepted  ;  the  people  of  Megara,  Locris 
Bccotia,  Phocis,  Ambracia,  Leucadia,  and  Anactorium.  Oi 
the  side  of  Athens,  were  the  people  of  Chios,  Lesbos,  Plataea 
many  of  the  islands,  and  several  tributary  maritime  states 
including  those  of  Thrace,  Potidaea  excepted. 

The  Lacedaemonians  immediately  after  their  attempts  npor 
Plataea,  assembled  a  body  of  men,  making  up,  with  their  con 
federates,  sixty  thousand  in  number.     Archidamus,  who  com- 
manded the  army,  harangued  them,  in  an  animated  speech 
he  told  them,  that  the  eyes  of  all  Greece  were  upon  them 
;hat  they  were  superior  In  numbers,  and  were  to  oppose  fin 
tnemy  not  only  inferior  in  number,  but  oppressed  with  the 
:on«iciousness  of  their  own  violence  and  injustice,     lie  ex- 
horted them  to  march   boldly  into  the  country,  which  they 
were  about  to  enter,  with  that  courage  for  which  they  had  been 
long  famous,  and  that  caution  which  was  requisir<*  against  s«» 


^^  THE  HISTORY 

insidious  an  adversary.     The  whole  army  answered  with  an 

it "  c       .    •   u^T'  7^^  c«»«nienced  in  a  frenzy  of  transport  by 

lericles,  on  the  other  hand,  prepared  his  scanty  body  of 
Athenians,  to  meet  the  threatened  blow.  He  declai-ed  to  th^ 
Athenians, that,  should  Archidamus,  when  he  was  laying  wast^ 

be  on^e^^^^^^^^^  ^P^.'^y  P^^^  ''  ^»^--  lands^whTch 

oeiongta  to  Pericles  himself,  he  wou  d  only  consider  it  as  i 

rick  to  impose  upon  Athenian  credulity.     He  theieLe\raye 

to\he  st'tr?.'""'  l"^  i'r  ^^"'^  ^  ^"^  resigned  them  b^aJk 
Wi  Ti  '  ""  '^^'""^  ^'^  ancestors  had  originally  received 
^Si d^rTTl:^'^  '°  the  people,  thatlwal[^e^^ 
iTemselverr^^^^  '  war :  and  to  let  the  enemy  consume 
inemselves  by  delay.  He  advised  them  to  remove  all  their 
effects  from  the  country ;  and  to  shut  themselves  up  L  Athens 
without  ever  hazarding  a  battle  ^       ^tnens, 

Lh  JSerwer'e^Tn''"^'  '""""   k"'  '''^  '^^'^^^^  ^^"^P^^^d  with 
Liose  they  were  to  oppose :  they  amounted  only  to  thirteen 

tnousand  heavy  armed  soldiers,  sixteen  thousand  inhabitants 
and  we  ve  hundred  horse,  with  a  body  of  aiXs  aW 
double  that  number.  This  was  the  whole^  army  of  the  Athe^ 
nians;  but  their  chief  strength  consisted  in  a  flel  of  three 
hundred  galleys  which,  by  continually  infesting  and  plunder' 
ing  the  enemies'  coast,  raised  contributions  sufficien  to  dL 
Iray  the  expenses  of  the  war.  "i^icnc  lo  ae- 

Imprest  with  the  exhortation  of  Pericles,  the  Athenians 
With  a  mixture  of  grief  and  resolution,  forsook  the  cultuTof 
the  fields,  and  carried  all  their  possessions  that  could  be  con- 
veyed  away  with  them,  into  Athens.  They  had  now  enioved 
the  sweets  of  peace  for  nearly  fifty  years,  and  their  llnds  wore 
an  appearance  ot  wealth  and  industry;  but,  from  the  fa  lof 
war,  they  were  once  more  obliged  to  forsake  c^ture  for  en- 
campment,  the  sweets  of  rural  life  for  the  shocks  of  battle 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Lacedaemonians  entered  the  cou   tr'y 
at  Oenoe   a  frontier  fortress;  and,  leaving  it  behind  them 
marched  forward  to  Acharne,  an  unwallod  town,  within  seven 
miles  of  Athens.     The  Athenians,  terrified  at  their  ap^ch 
now  began  to  convert  their  fury  against  the  enemy^huo  't' 
proaches  against  their  former  leader.     They  abused  h  n    fo^ 
bringing  them  into  a  war,  in  which  he  had  not  st^rngt   To^t 
nose  nor  courage  to  protect:  they  loudly  desired   notwif 
standing  the  inferiority  of  their  number,  to  be  /^d  tb^^^ 

J  encles,  however,  chose  the  more  moderate,  part.  He  shut 
up  the  city  gates;  placed  sufficient  guards  at  all  the  no  ts 
.round  ;  sent  out  parties  of  horse,  to  keep  the  enemy  emphv 


OF  GREECE. 


107 


ed,  and,  at  the  same  time,  ordered  out  one  hundred  galleysi 
to  infest  the  coast  of  Feloponnesus. 

These  precautions  at  last  succeeded.  After  tne  I  acedae- 
monians  had  laid  waste  the  whole  country  around  Athens ; 
and  insulted  the  defenders  of  the  city  by  their  numbers,  and 
their  reproaches,  finding  the  place  impregnable,  they  aban- 
doned the  siege  ;  and  the  inhabitants  once  more  issued  from 
their  walls,  in  security  and  joy. 

The  Athenians,  after  this  severe  mortification,  resolved  to 
retaliate :  being  left  at  liberty  to  act  offensively,  as  well  by 
land  as  sea,  they  invaded  the  enemy's  territory,  in  turn,  with 
their  whole  force ;  and  took  Nisae,  a  strong  haven,  with  walls 
reaching  to  the  city  of  Nigara. 

Proud  of  the  first  dawn  of  success,  and  the  first  campaign 
having  elapsed,  during  the  winter  they  expressed  their  triumph 
by  public  games,  at  the  funerals  of  those  that  were  slain  in 
battle.  They  placed  their  bodies  in  tents,  three  days  before 
the  funeral :  on  the  fourth  day,  coffins  of  cypress  were  sent 
from  the  tribes,  to  convey  the  bones  of  their  relations ;  the 
procession  marched  with  solemn  pomp,  attended  by  the  in- 
habitants, and  strangers  who  visited  the  city :  the  relations 
and  children  of  the  soldiers,  who  were  killed,  stood  weeping 
at  ^le  sepulchre :  those  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
indeed,  were  buried  on  the  field ;  but  the  rest  received  one 
common  interment,  in  a  place  called  Ceranicus. 

Pericles,  on  that  occasion,  pronounced  a  funeral  oration 
o\er  them,  which  remains,  to  this  day,  a  specimen  of  his  great 
eloquence.  But  the  joy  of  the  public  was  not  confined  to 
empty  praises,  ceremonies,  and  tears :  a  stipend  was  set  apart 
for  maintaining  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had 
fallen  in  the  service  of  their  country.  And  thus  ended  the 
first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  ensuing  summer,  the  X-acedaemoni- 
ans  renewed  their  hostilities ;  and  invaded  the  territories  of 
Athens,  with  the  same  number  of  men  as  before.  In  this 
manner,  these  capricious  states  went  on  to  harass  and  depopu- 
late each  other ;  but  a  more  terrible  punishment  now  began 
to  threaten  them  from  Heaven. 

A  plague  broke  out,  in  the  city  of  Athens ;  a  more  terrible 
than  which  is  scarcely  recorded  in  the  annals  of  history.  1 1 
is  related,  that  it  began  in  Ethiopia,  whence  it  descended  into 
Egypt,  from  thence  travelled  into  Lybia  and  Persia,  and  at' 
last  broke,  like  a  flood,  upon  Athens.  This  pestilence  baflled 
the  utmost  efforts  of  art ;  the  most  robust  constitutions  were 
unable  to  withstand  its  attacks ;  no  skill  could  obviate,  no 
remedy  dispel  the  terrible  infection. 


108 


TJIE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


109 


The  instant  a  person  was  seized,  he  was  struck  with  dcs- 
l»air,  wiiich  quite  disabled  him  from  attempting  a  cure.  The 
humanity  of  friends  was  fatal  to  themselves,  as  it  was  i  )ef- 
lectual  to  the  unhappy  sufferers.  The  prodigious  quantity 
oi  baggage  which  had  been  removed  out  of  the  country  into 
*^o  r,tv,  increased  the. calamity.  Most  of  the  inhabitants, 
tor  want  oi  lodgmg,  lived  in  little  cottages,  in  which  they 
could  scarcely  breathe;  while  the  burning  heat  of  the  sum- 
mer increased  the  pestilential  malignity. 

They  were  seen  confusedly  huddled  together,  the  dead  as 
^ell  as  the  dying;  some  crawling  through  the  streets;  some 
lymg  along  by  the  sides  of  fountains,  whither  they  had  en- 
deavoured  to  repair,  to  quench  the  raging  thirst  which  con- 
sumed them.  Iheir  very  temples  were  filled  with  dead 
bodies;  and  every  part  of  the  city  exhibited  a  dreadful  imat?e 
of  death,  without  the  least  remedy  for  the  present,  or  the 
least  hopes  with  regard  to  the  future. 

It  seized  all,  with  such  violence,  that  they  fell  one  upon  ano 
thcr,  as  they  passed  along  the  streets.  It  was  also  attended 
with  such  uncommon  pestilential  vapours,  that  the  very  beasts 
and  birds  of  prey,  though  famishing  around  the  walls  of  the 
city,  would  not  touch  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  of  it 
Even  m  those  who  recovered,  it  left  such  a  tincture  oP  its 
malignity,  that  it  struck  upon  their  senses.  It  eff-iced  the  no- 
lices  and  memory  of  all  the  passages  of  their  lives  ;  and  thcv 
kr.ew  neither  themselves  nor  their  nearest  relations. 

1  he  circumstances  of  this  disease  are  described  at  larcre  by 
lhucydides,who  was  sick  of  it  himself:  and  he  obscM-ves, 
among  other  effects  of  it,  that  it  introduced  into  the  city  a 
more  licentious  u-ay  of  living :  for  the  people  at  first  had  re- 

^^Z?lu   '^?''^f'  ^^,  ^'Y'  t'^^t  judgment ;  but,  finding  they 
uere  al    alike  infected,  whether  they  worshiped  them  or  not, 
and  that  it  was  generally  mortal,  they  abandoned  themselves 
at  once,  to  despair  and  riot;  for,  since  they  held  their  lives 

m.  T  ^^^^^''^^y  the  day,  they  were  resolved  to  make  the 
most  ot  their  time  and  money. 

The  cause  of  it  was  generally  imputed  to  Pericles;  who, 
cornl^ntln  ?k'"  '^^'?^^'V'*to  the  city,  was  thought  t^  have 
c  oi  riipted  the  very  air.     Yet,  though  this  was  rac^ini?  within 

s^.l^^'^'r^  Tf""^  '\'  "°^^"'''y  ^^^^h«"^  ^^^  ^^^s  still  in  the 
same  mind  as  before—that  they  ought  not  to  put  all  their 
hopes  upon  the  issue  of  a  battle.  In  the  mean  time,  the  en^ 
my  advancing  towards  the  coast,  laid  waste  the  whole  coun- 
ry;  and  returned,  after  having  insulted  the  wretched  Athe- 
mans   already  thinned  by  pestilence  and  famine. 

f  ickleness  and  inconstancy  were  the  prevailing  chararter« 


of  the  Athenians :  and,  as  these  carried  them,  on  a  sudden,  to 
their  greatest  excesses,  they  soon  brought  them  back  withm 
the  bounds  of  moderation  and  n-.spect.  Peric  es  had  been 
loii^  a  favourite;  the  calamities  of  the  state  at  last  began  tc 
render  him  obnoxious  :  they  had  deposed  him  from  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  but  now  repented  their  rashness,  and  rein- 
stated him,  a  short  time  afterwards,  with  more  than  former 

*"bv  dint  of  suffering,  they  began  to  bear  patiently  their  do 
nestic  misfortunes;  and,  impressed  with  a  love  for  their  coun- 
trv  asked  pardon  for  their  former  ingratitude.     But  he  dia 
not  live  long,  to  enjoy  his  honours.     He  was  seized  with  the 
plaeue,  which,  like  a  malignant  enemy,  struck  its  severest 
llow  at  parting.     Being  extremely  ill   and  ready  to  breathe 
his  last/the  principal  citizens,  and  such  of  his  friends  as  had 
not  forsaken  him,  discoursing  in  his  bed-chamber  concerning 
the  loss  they  were  about  to  sustain,  ran  over  his  exploits,  and 
computed  the  number  of  his  victories.    They  did  not  imagine 
that  Pericles  attended  to  what  they  said,  as  he  seemed  insen- 
sible;  but  it  was  far  otherwise:  not  a  ^^l^g  ^  ^^oj^  of  their 
discourse  had  escaped  him.     At  last,  cried  he,  "Why  will 
you  extol  a  series  of  actions,  in  which  fortune  had  the  great- 
est  part  ?  There  is  one  circumstance,  which  I  would  not  have 
forgotten,  yet  which  you  have  passed  over.     1  could  wish  to 
have  it  remembered,  as  the  most  glorious  circumstance  of 
my  life— that  I  never  yet  caused  a  single  citizen  to  put  on 

""Thus"!  died  Pericles;  in  whom,  were  united  a  number  of 
excellent  qualities,  without  impairing  each  other.  As  we 
skilled  in  naval  affairs,  as  in  the  conduct  of  armies ;  as  well 
skilled  in  the  arts  of  raising  money,  as  of  employing  it;  elo- 
nuent  in  public,  and  pleasing  in  private :  he  was  a  patron  ol 
artists,  at  once  informing  them  by  his  taste  and  example. 

The  most  memorable  transaction  of  the  following  year,  was 
the  siege  of  Platxa,  by  the  Lacedemonians.  1  his  was  one 
of  the  most  famous  sieges  in  antiquity,  o"„=^"°""V°[.  ^¥ 
vigorous  efforts  of  both  parties;  but  especially  for  the  glou- 
ous  resistance  made  by  the  besieged ;  and  their  stratagems 
to  p«irane  the  furv  of  the  assailants.  ,     . 

The  Lacedemonians  besieged  this  place  in  the  beginning 
of  the  thU-d  campaign.  As  soon  as  they  had  fixed  their  camp 
round  he  city,  in  order  to  lay  waste  the  p  aces  adjacent  the 
Plasetans  sent  deputies  to  the  Lacedsmonian  general,  decla- 
rinfthriStice  of  injuring  them,  who  had  received  their 
iberties,™  a  former  occasion,  from  the  Lacedaemonia  s  Ihem- 
.elves     The  Lacedemonians  replied,  that  there  was  but  ™e 


110 


THE  HISTORY 


method  to  insure  their  safety,  which  was,  to  renew  that  alii 
ance  by  which  they  gained  their  freedom ;  to  disclaim  their 
Athenian  supporters,  and  to  unite  with  the  Lacedaemonians 
who  had  power  and  will  to  protect  them. 

The  deputies  replied,  that  they  could  not  come  to  any  agree- 
ment, without  first  sending  to  Athens,  whither  their  wives  and 
children  had  retired.  The  Lacedaemonians  permitted  them 
to  send  thither ;  but  the  Athenians  solemnly  promising  to 
succour  them  to  the  utmost  of  their  power,  the  Platxans  re- 
solved to  suffer  the  last  extremities,  rather  than  surrender; 
and  prepared  for  a  vigorous  defence,  with  a  steady  resolution 
to  succeed  or  fall. 

Archidamus,  the  Lacedaemonian  general,  after  calling  upon 
the  gods  to  witness  that  he  did  not  first  infringe  the  alliance^ 
prepared  for  the  siege,  with  equal  perseverance.  lie  surround- 
ed the  city  with  a  circumvallation  of  trees,  which  were  laid 
very  close  together,  the  branches  turned  towards  the  city.  He 
then  raised  batteries  upon  them,  and  formed  a  terrace,  suffi- 
cient to  support  his  warlike  machines.  His  army  worked 
day  and  night,  without  intermission,  for  seventy  days;  one 
half  of  the  soldiers  reposing  themselves,  while  the  others 
were  at  work. 

The  besieged,  observing  the  works  begin  to  rise  around 
them,  threw  up  a  Avooden  wall,  upon  the  walls  of  the  city,  op- 
posite the  platforn),  in  order  that  they  might  always  out-top 
the  besiegers.  Tliis  wall  was  covered,  on  the  outside,  with 
fades,  both  raw  and  dry,  in  order  to  shelter  it  from  the  be- 
siegers* fires.  Thus,  both  walls  seemed  to  vie  with  each  other 
for  superiority,  till  at  last  the  besieged,  without  amusing  them- 
selves at  this  work  any  longer,  built  another,  within,  in  the 
form  of  a  half-moon,  behind  which  they  might  retire,  in  case 
tlieir  outer  works  were  forced. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  besiegers,  having  mounted  their  en- 
gines of  war,  shook  the  city  wall,  in  a  very  terrible  manner; 
which,  though  it  alarmed  the  citizens,  did  not,  however,  dis- 
courage them:  they  employed  every  art  that  fortification  could 
suggest,  against  the  enemy's  batteries.  They  caught,  with 
ropes,  the  heads  of  the  battering  rams  that  were  urged  again&t 
them,  and  deadened  their  force  with  levers. 

The  besiegers,  finding  their  attacks  did  not  go  on  success- 
fully, and  that  a  new  wall  was  raised  against  their  platform," 
despaired  of  being  able  to  storm  the  place ;  aiid,  therefore, 
changed  the  siege  into  a  blockade,  after  having  vainly  at- 
tempted to  set  fire  to  the  city,  which  was  suddenly  quenched 
by  a  shower. 

The  city  was  now  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall,  suddenly 


OF  GREECE. 


in 


elected,  strengthened,  an  each  side,  by  a  deep  ditch.  Thj! 
whole  army  was  engaged  successively  upon  this  wall ;  and, 
when  it  was  finished,  they  left  a  guard  over  one  halt ;  the 
ftoeotians  offering  to  guard  the  other  half,  whilst  the  rest  of 
the  army  returned  to  Sparta. 

In  this  manner,  the  wretched  Plataeans  were  cooped  up,  by 
a  strong  wall,  without  any  hopes  of  redress,  and  only  waited 
the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  There  were  now  in  Plataea,  but 
four  hundred  inhabitants,  and  eighty  Athenians,  with  a  hun- 
dred and  ten  women,  to  dress  their  victuals,  and  no  other  per- 
son,  whether  freeman  or  slave;  all  the  rest  having  been  sent 
to  Athens,  before  the  siege. 

At  last,  the  inhabitants  of  Plataea,  having  lost  all  hopes  ot 
succour,  and  being  in  the  utmost  want  of  provisions,  formed  a 
resolution  to  cut  their  way  through  the  enemy.  ■»^ut,halt  ot 
them,  struck  with  the  greatness  of  the  danger,  and  boldness 
of  the  enterprise,  entirely  lost  courage,  when  they  came  to 
the  execution ;  but  the  rest,  who  were  about  two  hundred  and 
twenty  soldiers,  persisted  in  their  resolution,  and  escaped,  in 

the  following  manner :  «    .  „  »  * 

The  besieged  first  took  the  heights  of  the  wall,  by  count 
ing  the  rows  of  bricks  which  composed  it ;  and  this  they  did 
at  different  times,  and  employed  several  men  for  that  purpose, 
in  order  that  they  might  not  mistake  in  the  calculation.  1  his 
was  the  easier,  because  as  the  wall  stood  at  a  small  distance, 
every  part  of  it  was  very  visible.     They  then  made  ladders 

of  a  proper  length.  .         ,      j     •        ♦!  ^ 

All  things  being  now  ready  for  executing  the  design,  the 
besicL-ed  left  the  city,  one  night  when  there  was  no  moon,  in 
the  inidst  of  a  storm  of  wind  and  rain.  After  crossmg  the 
first  ditch,  they  drew  near  the  wall,  undiscoAered,  through 
the  darkness  of  night,  whilst  the  noise  made  by  the  rain  and 
wind,  prevented  their  being  heard. 

They  marched  at  some  distance  from  one  another,  to  pre^ 
vent  the  clashing  of  their  arms,  which  were  light,^in  order 
that  those  who  carried  them  might  be  the  more  active;  and 
one  of  their  legs  was  naked,  to  keep  them  from  sliding  so 
easily  in  the  mire.  Those  who  carried  the  ladders  laid  them 
in  the  space  between  the  towers,  where  they  knew  no  guard 
was  posted,  because  it  rained.  That  instant,  twely^  men 
mounted  the  ladder,  armed  with  only  a  coat  of  mail  and  a 
dagger,  and  marched  directly  to  the  towers,  six  on  each  side. 
They  were  followed  by  soldiers,  armed  only  with  javelms,  that 
they  might  mount  the  easier ;  and  their  shields  were  carried 
after  them,  to  be  used  in  the  charge. 

When  most  of  these  had  ascended  to  the  top  of  the  waM, 

K2 


112 


THE  JilSTOJiy 


they  were  discovered  by  the  falling  of  a  tile,  which  one  of 
their  comrades,  in  taking  hold  of  the  parapet,  had  thrown 
down.  The  alarm  was  immediately  given  from  the  towers, 
and  the  whole  army  approached  the  wall,  without  discovering 
the  occasion  of  the  outcry,  from  the  gloom  of  the  night  and 
the  violence  of  the  storm.  Besides  which,  those  who  had 
staid  behind  in  the  city,  beat  an  alarm,  af  the  same  time,  in 
another  quarter,  to  make  a  diversion :  so  that  the  enemy  did 
not  know  which  way  to  turn  themselves,  and  were  afraid  to 
quit  their  posts. 

But  a  corps,  the  reserve  of  three  hundred  men,  who  were 
kept  ior  any  unforeseen  accident  that  might  happen,  quitted 
the  contravallation,  and  ran  to  that  part  where  they  heard  the 
noise :  and  torches  were  held  up  towards  Thebes,  to  show  that 
they  must  run  that  way.     But  those  in  the  city,  to  render  the 
signal  of  no  use,  made  others,at  the  same  time,in  different 
quarters,  haA^ng  prepared  them  on  the  walls  for  that  purpose. 
In  the  mean  time,  those  who  had  mounted  first,  havine 
taken  possession  of  the  two  towers  which  flanked  the  interval 
where  the  ladders  were  set,  and  having  killed  those  who  e-uard- 
ed  them,  posted  themselves  there,  to  defend  the  passaife,  and 
keep  off  the  besiegers.    Then,  setting  ladders  on  the  top  of  the 
wall,  between  the  two  towers,  they  caused  a  good  number  ol 
their  comrades  to  mount,  in  order  to  keep  off,  by  a  discharjrt 
of  their  arrows,  as  well  those  who  were  advancing  to  the 
toot  of  the  wall,  as  the  others  who   were  hastenim-  to  the 
neighbouring  towers. 

Whilst  this  was  doing,  they  had  time  to  set  up  several  lad- 
tiers;  and  to  throw  down  the  parapet,  that  the  rest  mitjht 
ascend  with  greater  ease.  As  fast  as  they  came  up,  they  went 
clown  on  the  other  side;  and  drew  up  near  the  fosse,  on  the 
outside,  to  shoot  at  those  who  appeared.  After  they  had 
passed  over,  the  men  who  were  in  the  towers  came  down,  and 
hastened  to  the  fosse,  to  follow  after  the  rest.  That  instant 
the  guard,  with  three  hundred  torches,  arrived.  However' 
as  the  Plataeans  saw  their  enemies  by  this  light,  better  than 
they  were  seen  by  them,  they  took  a  surer  aim ;  by  which 
Bieans,  the  last  crossed  the  ditch,  without  being  attacked  in 
their  passage.  However,  this  was  not  done  without  much 
difficulty;  because  the  ditch  was  frozen  over,  and  the  ice 
would  not  bear,  on  account  of  thaw  and  heavy  rains  The 
violence  of  the  storm,  was  of  great  advantage  to  them.  After 
-all  had  passed,  they  took  the  road  towards  Thebes,  the  bet- 
ter to  c-onceal  their  retreat;  because  it  was  not  likely  thev 
IiaU  fled  towards  a  city  of  the  enemy. 
Immediately,  they  perceived  the  besiegers,  with  torches  in 


OF  CiREECE 


113 


their  hands  pursuing  them  in  the  road  that  led  to  Athens. 
After  keeping  that  of  I'hebes  about  six  or  seven  stadia,  they 
turned  short  towards  the  mountain,  and  resumed  the  route  to 
Athens :  where  two  hundred  and  twelve  arrived,  out  of  two 
hundred  and  twenty,  who  had  quitted  the  place :  the  rest 
havine  returned  back  through  fear,  one  archer  excepted,  who 
was  taken  on  the  side  of  the  fosse  of  contravallation. 

The  besiegers,  after  having  ineffectually  pursued  them,  re- 
turned to  their  camp.    In  the  mean  time,  the  Plataeans,  who  re- 
mained in  the  city,  supposing  that  all  their  companions  had 
been  killed,  (because  those  who  had  returned,  to  justify  them- 
selves  affirmed  they  were)  sent  a  herald,  to  demand  their  dead 
rodies ;  but?being  told  the  true  state  of  the  affair  he  withdrew. 
At  the  end  of  the  following  campaign,  the  Pla  ^ans  being 
in  absolute  want  of  provisions,  and  unable  to  make  the  least 
defence,  surrendered,  upon  condition  that  they  should  not  be 
nunished,  till  they  had  been  tried  and  adjudged  m  form  ot 
ustice.     Five  commissioners  came,  for  this  purpose  from 
Lacedxmon ;   and  these,  without  charging  them  with   any 
S  bTre";  asked  them  whether  they  hud  done  any  service 
to  the  Lacedemonians  and  the  allies  in  this  war. 

The  Plateans  were  much  surprised,  as  well  as  puzzled,  by 
this  ouestion;  and  were  sensible  that  it  had  been  suggested 
by  thrThTbans,  their  professed  enemies  who  had  vowed 
theii  destruction.  They,  therefore,  put  the  Lacedaemonians 
n  minrof  the  services  Ihey  had  rendered  Greece  m  general 
both  at  the  battle  of  Artemisium  and  that  of  Platxa,  and 
JaKicul^l  in  Lacedemonia,  at  the  time  of  the  earthquake, 
which  was  followed  by  the  revolt  of  their  slaves. 

The  only  reason,  they  declared,  for  their  having  joined    he 
Athenirns\fterwards,'was  to  defend  themselves  from  the 
hostUitks  of  the  Thebans,  against  whom  they  had  in  vain 
implored  the  assistance  of  the  Lacedaemonians.    That  if  that 
vir-rpu  ed  to  them  as  a  crime,  which  was  only  their  mis- 
for  un^i    ought  not,  however,  entirely  to  obliterate  the  re- 
trbr'ance  of  their  former  services,  "^-t  your  eyes     said 
thev   "  on  the  monuments  of  your  ancestors,  which  >ou  see 
here'  to  whom  we  annually  pay  all  the  honours  which  can  be 
rendered^^^^^^        manes  of  the  dead.     You  thought  fit  to  en. 
[rust  [heir  bodies  with  us,  as  we  were  eye-witnesses  of  their 
bravery     Yet  you  will  no^  give  up  their  ashes  to  their  mur. 
derers^n  abandoning  us  to  the  Thebans,  who  fought  against 
them  at  the  battle  of  Platan  a  ?    Will  you  enslave  a  province 
^\"e  Greece  recovered  its  liberty?    WiU  you  destroy  ^ 
temoles  of  those  gods,  to  whom  you  owed  the  victory?  \\ill 
Iro^  aboUsh  the  memory  of  their  founders,  who  contributed 


'i'*  THE  HISTORY 

so  greatly  to  your  safety  ?  On  this  occasion,  we  may  venture 
to  say,  that  our  interest  is  inseparable  from  your  Elorv  •  and 
that  you  cannot  deliver  up  your  ancient  friends  and  bencfac 
tors,  to  the  unjust  hatred  of  the  Thcbans,  without  eternal  in- 
lamy  to  yourselves." 

One  would  conclude,  that  these  just  remonstrances  should 
have  made  some  impression  on  the  Lacedemonians:  but  they 
were  biassed  more  by  the  answer  of  the  Thebans,  which  was 
expressed  in  the  most  haughty  and  bitter  terms  against  the 
Platsans:  and  besides,  they  had  brought  their  instructions 
Irom  Lacedsmon.  u>-uui.a 

They  stood,  therefore,  to  their  first  question— whether  the 
Plataeans  had  done  them  any  service  since  the  war  •   and 

*"  "?«  xT^"J.  P^'f  °"^  ^''''^''  ^"""^er,  as  they  severally  an-' 
swered  "No,"  each  was  immediately  butchered,  and  nofone 
escaped.  About  two  hundred  were  killed  in  this  manner  • 
and  twenty-five  Athenians,  who  were  among  them,  met  with 
the  same  unhappy  fate.  Their  wives  who  had  been  taken 
prisoners  were  made  slaves. 

The  The_bans  afterwards  peopled  the  city  with  exiles  from 
Megaraand  Platxa;  but  the  year  afterwards,  they  demolished 
11  entirely.  It  was  in  this  manner,  the  Lacedemonians,  in  the 
fi^iT.K  pf^P'"^  ^'^l'  advantages  from  the  Thebans,  sacri- 
ficed  the  Platsans  to  their  animosity,  ninety-three  years  aftei 
their  first  alliance  with  the  Athenians. 

I  pass  over  several  particular  incidents  of  the  succeeding 
campaign,  m  which  the  Grecian  states  mutually  destrovcd 
each  other,  without  promoting  general  happiness,  or  estab- 
lish.ng  any  common  form  of  government.  The  fluctuations 
of  success  were  various.  The  Athenians  took  the  city  of 
Pylus  from  the  Lacedemonians;  and  they,  on  the  other  hand 
made  annual  incursions  into  Attica.  More  than  one  overture 

.nJI'r'ZT  """*"' ''"'  Cleon,  who  had  a  great  ascendaJ 
anjor.g  the  Athenians,  prevented  their  taking  effect 

1  he  war  was,  therefore,  renewed,  with  all  its  former  ani. 
mosuies.     The  island  of  Pylus  became  the  scene  ormutua 
contention      Demosthenes,  who  afterwards  became  the  cc"e 
brated  orator,  being  joined  in  commission  with  CIcon,  landed 
on   he  island  m  order  to  dispossess  the  Lacedemonians,  who 
sun  remained  there      They  attacked  the  enemy  with  great 
vigour,  drove  them  from  post  to  post,  and,  perpetually  Un 
ing  ground,  at  last  forced  them  to  the  extremity  of  the  isfan 
■„jy  Ir^"''^">°nians  had  stormed  a  fort  that  was  thought' 
naccessible  ;  there  they  drew  up  in  battle  array,  faced  abou 
to  that  side  only  where  they  could  be  attacked,  and  defended 
themselves  like  so  many  lions.   As  the  eno-n.^.!^-.-,.  T'""., 

-■r 


OF  GREECE. 


115 


th'*  ercalcr  part  of  the  day,  and  the  soldiers  were  oppressed 
Willi  heat  and  weariness,  and  parched  with  thirst,  the  general 
of  the  Messenians  directinij  himself  to  Cleon  and  Demos- 
thenes, said,  that  all  their  efforts  would  be  ineffectual,  unless 
they  charged  their  enemy's  rear;  and  promised,  if  they  would 
irive  him  some  troops,  armed  with  missive  weapons,  that  he 
would  endeavour  to  find  a  passage. 

Accordingly,  he  and  his  followers  climbed  up  certain  steep 
and  craggy  places,  which  were  not  guarded ;  when,  coming 
down  unperceived  into  the  fort,  he  appeared,  on  a  sudden,  at 
thf  backs  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  which  entirely  damped  their 
courage  ;  and  afterwards  completed  their  overthrow.  They 
now  made  a  very  feeble  resistance ;  and  being  oppressed  with 
numbers,  attacked  on  all  sides,  and  dejected  through  fatigue 
and  despair,  they  began  to  give  way,  but  the  Athenians  seized 
on  all  the  passes,  to  cut  off  their  retreat. 

Cleon  and  Demosthenes,  finding,  that,  should  the  battle 
continue,  not  a  man  would  escape,  and,  being  desirous  of 
carrying  them  alive  to  Athens,  commanded  their  soldiers  to 
desist ;  and  caused  a  proclamation  to  be  made,  by  a  herald, 
for  them  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and  surrender  at  discretion. 
At  these  words,  the  greater  part  lowered  their  shields,  and 
clapped  their  hands,  in  token  of  approbation.  A  kind  of  sus- 
pension of  arms  was  agreed  upon,  and  their  commander  de- 
sired leave  might  be  granted  him,  to  despatch  a  messenger  to 
the  camp,  to  know  the  resolution  of  the  generals.  This  was 
not  allowed  ;  but  they  called  heralds  from  the  coast,  and,  af- 
ter several  messages,  a  Lacedaemonian  advanced  forward,  and 
cried  aloud,  that  they  were  permitted  to  treat  with  the  ene- 
my provided  they  did  not  submit  to  dishonourable  terms. 

Upon  this,  they  held  a  conference,  after  which  they  sup- 
rendered  at  discretion ;  and  were  kept  till  the  next  day.  The 
Athenians,  then  raising  a  trophy,  and  restormg  the  Lacedx- 
monians  their  dead,  embarked  for  their  own  country ;  alter 
distributing  the  prisoners  among  the  several  ships,  and  com 
mittini?  the  guard  of  them  to  the  captains  of  the  galleys. 

In  this  battle,  there  fell  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  La 
ced^monians,  out  of  four  hundred  and  twenty,  which  wa% 
their  number  at  first;  so  that  there  survived  not  quite  three 
hundred;  a  hundred  and  twenty  of  whom  were  mhabuanta 
of  the  city  of  Sparta.  The  siege  of  the  island  (to  compute 
from  the  beginning,  including  the  time  employed  m  the  truce) 
had  lasted  seventy-two  days.  .       .,        , 

Thev  all  now  left  Pylus,  and  Cleon's  promise,  though  so 
vain  and  rash,  was  found  literally  true.  But  the  most  sur- 
prising circumstance,  was,  the  capitulation  that  had  bcea 


lUi 


TJJK  JIIbJoiiY 


made ;  for,  u  had  been  tho„..ht  that  th.  T  a 
far  from  surrcndeiing  their trmf^vn  .1  ^.='^^''«monians,  S9 
Having  come  to  Athens,  tl™r'  IhJ  ^"  ''""'^  "'  ^and. 
ers,  UII  a  peace  should  be  concluded  "m  ■".'"""'  ^"""'■ 
nionians  did  not  nuke  any  kcurstll  P?"'^-^  1^'=  I-aceds- 

pactus,Vho^:drr;;;;oS:ed  u"*^  ^r,--^  -f^'- 

«'f  their  youth,  who  very  muchTnf    .  •i^"u'  't"''"  ^''^  Aowcr 

.         by  their  incursions  ;  and,  Ts  the  e  M  '        '  ^'"=«'*'"°'"ans' 

euage  of  the  country,  they  nrevaili     •!?""'"'  ^P°^^  '^e  Ian- 

slaves  to  join  them.        ^  P'-^vailed  with  a  great  number  of 

deputt!;rt*rhtrbutT,tVur"'^'-  r"'  -'  -vera, 
•ng  too  much  elated 'with  hX'^nrr"'-"'"  ^"'^"'^"^  be 
their  late  success,  to  listen  to-^L^.^^^^l'  «"'  especially 

years,  successively',  hostih"ew".e  r?"'' ,  ^"''  '''"  °^  "'ree 
success;  and  nothing  but  1L  h  ,  ,■•""'  ?"'^'"i  alternate 
other  of  the  two  Hvaf  states  couIdT'"?  °f  ">*=  °"^  °'-  'he 
Athenians  made  themselves  masters  of  ,  ■'','  ''I""''-*'-  ^be 
b...  on  the  other  hand,  were  cleSd:^^^^'-; 

any  real  advantage     A  ...^r/'  ''"''  ''""  "°'  Pi-ocure  them 
eluded,  which  bing  e^  red  t  ^  r'  ^^»^  '^erefore  co" 

njore  lasting  .•econc'ili:'[ro:"''Tle  dea  h  Tl  ''"^  "^^  '•^  ^ 
that  commanded  the  mnt^.,  r  .^^"  ^^  ^^e  two  trenep;^^ 

hasten  this  event.   'BrS^"L''r'"r""""''  "='  ''^i"    ^ 
as  he  was  conducting  a  sallv  w I,    ^^"j'«"'°nian,  was  killed 
and  Cleon,  the  Athfnkn  H^^-  •     ^""S"'  '"  Amphipolis- 
knew  himself  supertrtltTroL""  '^'""^  '°  '^^'^^^e 
safety,  was  killed  by  a  soldier  Xoh  "'"'"''?'  '"^  "^'"if  '"^ 
Thus,  these  two  men  who  hn!i  i        ""^PPened  to  meet  him 
of  Greece,  and  raised    hel  'f '°"?  "PP?''^^  "'e  tranqu    Uy' 

ent  way,  fel,  a  sacrifice  to  the^i'^wra^nb '." ' '"  '  very'diifer' 

They  were,  howevpr    ^1       V      ^'"bition. 
Brassidas  had  courage  'an^^„°5  "^''^  "PPosite  characters 
fty;  and,  it  was  hJ^^^r^^^^^ttuh  r^T'''"'  ^"^  "^'eg. 
"}S  reputation  of  his  countr,'      Hi^'''"''^P'  "P  "'e  sink- 
since  Pausanias,  who  appeared  whh         '  '^^  ""'^  Spartan, 
ter  among  the  confederateft^    T^  .^"^  established  charac 
they  were'  again  brou^'  undeT  t^  h'  ''^"^"'^  ^°  ^^11,  tha, 
and  several  cities  submitted  f„^  •  ^  dependance  of  Spana 
rrer  from  the  tyranny  o"Athe„""'  "'  ""''•  --"mou^delfv' 

^''""^^"-"''^^'»P'>'P^^-^.'>esidestheIrJoI„i„,w^ 


OF  GREECE. 


117 


Ihe  other  allies  in  solemnizing  his  funeral  in  a  public  manner, 
instituted  anniversary  games  and  sacrifices  to  his  memory, 
as  a  hero;  and  so  far  considered  him  as  their  founder,  that 
they  destroyed  all  the  monuments  which  had  been  preserved 
as  marks  of  their  being  an  Athenian  colony. 

His  opposition  to  the  peace,  was  not  so  much  the  effects 
of  his  obstinacy,  as  of  a  true  Spartan  zeal  for  the  honour  of 
his  country,  which  he  was  sensible  had  been  treated  by  the 
Athenians  with  too  much  insolence  and  contempt.  He  had 
now  a  fair  prospect  of  bringing  them  to  reason,  as  he  was 
gaining  ground  upon  them,  and  every  day  making  fresh  con- 
quests; and,  however  he  might  be  transported  with  the  glory 
of  performing  great  actions,  yet  the  main  end  of  his  ambition 
seems  to  have  been,  the  bringing  the  war  to  a  happy  con- 
clusion. 

I  must  not  here  omit  the  generous  answer,  made  by  his 
mother,  to  the  persons  who  brought  her  the  news  of  his  death. 
Upon  her  asking  them  whether  he  died  honourably,  they 
naturally  fell  into  encomiums  on  his  great  exploits,  and  his 
personally  bravery,  and  preferred  him  to  all  the  generals  of 
his  time  ;  "  Yes,"  said  she,  "  my  sen  was  a  valiant  man,  but 
Sparta  has  still  many  citizens  braver  than  he." 

Cleon  was  a  different  sort  of  man.  He  was  rash,  arrogant, 
and  obstinate  ;  contentious,  envious,  and  malicious  ;  covetous 
and  corrupt ;  and  yet,  with  all  these  bad  qualities,  he  had 
some  little  arts  of  popularity,  which  raised  and  supported 
him.  He  made  it  his  business  to  caress  the  old  men ;  and, 
much  as  he  loved  money,  he  often  relieved  the  poor.  ^le  had 
a  ready  wit,  with  a  way  of  drollery  that  pleased  many,  though 
with  the  generality  it  passed  for  impudence  and  buffoonery. 

He  had  one  very  refined  way  of  recommending  himself, 
which  was,  upon  his  coming  into  power,  to  discard  all  his 
old  friends,  for  fear  it  should  be  thought  he  would  be  biassed 
by  them.  At  the  same  time,  he  picked  up  a  vile  set  of  syco- 
phants, in  their  room,  and  made  a  servile  court  to  the  lowest 
dregs  of  the  people  ;  and  yet  even  they  had  so  bad  an  opinion 
of  him,  that  thoy  often  declared  against  him  for  Nicias,  his 
professed  enemy ;  who,  though  he  took  part  with  the  nobility, 
still  preserved  an  interest  in  the  commons,  and  was  more 
generally  respected. 

That  which  Cleon  chiefly  depended  on,  was  his  eloquence, 
but  it  was  of  a  boisterous  kind,  verbose  and  petulant,  and 
consisted  more  in  the  vehemence  of  his  style  and  utterance, 
and  the  distortion  of  his  action  and  gesture,  than  in  the 
strength  of  his  reasoning. 

By  this  furious    manner    of  haranguing,  he  introduced. 


118 


THE  HISTORY 


among  the  orators  and  statesmen,  a  licentiousness  and  inde 
cency,  which  were  not  known  before  ;  and  which  caused  the 
many  riotous  and  disorderly  proceedings,  that  afterwards  oc- 
curred in  the  assemblies,  when  almost  every  thing  was  car- 
ried by  noise  and  tumult.  In  the  military  part  of  his  service, 
he  was  as  unaccountable,  as  in  the  rest  of  his  conduct.  He 
was  not  naturally  formed  for  war,  and  used  it  only  as  a  cloak 
for  his  ill  practices,  and  because  he  could  not  carry  on  his 
otner  views  without  it. 

The  taking  of  Sphacteria  was  certainly  a  great  action,  but 
it  was  a  rash  and  desperate  one ;  and  it  has  been  shown  how 
he  was  undesignedly  drawn  into  it  by  a  boast  of  his  own. 
However,  he  was  so  elated  with  the  success  of  that  expedi- 
tion, that  he  fancied  himself  a  general :  and  the  people  were 
brought  to  have  the  same  opinion. 

But  the  event  soon  undeceived  them  ;  and  convinced  them 
that  he  knew  better  how  to  lead  in  the  assembly,  than  in  the 
field.  In  reality,  he  was  not  a  man  to  be  trusted  in  either; 
for,  in  the  one,  he  was  more  of  a  blusterer,  than  of  a  soldier; 
and  in  the  other,  he  had  more  of  an  incendiary,  than  of  a 
patriot. 

The  Lacedaemonians  were  no  less  inclined  to  peace,  than 
the  Athenians ;  and  were  glad  to  treat,  at  this  time,  while 
they  could  do  it  with  honour;  besides,  they  had  nothing  more 
at  heart  than  the  imprisonment  of  their  men  taken  at  Pylus, 
who  were  the  chief  of  their  city  ;  and,  among  other  conside- 
rations, it  was  not  the  least,  that  the  truce  which  they  had 
made  with  Argos  for  thirty  years,  was  just  expiring. 

This  was  ;.  strong  and  flourishing  city,  and  though  it  was 
not,  of  itself,  a  match  for  Sparta,  yet  they  knew  it  was  far 
irom  being  contemptible,  and  that  it  held  too  good  a  corres 
pondence  with  its  neighbours,  not  to  make  itself  capable  of 
giving  them  a  great  deal  of  uneasiness. 

The  matter  having  been  canvassed  and  debated  most  of 
the  winter,  the  Lacedaemonians,  to  bring  the  treaty  to  a  con- 
clusion, gave  out  that  they  resolved,  as  soon  as  the  season 
would  permit,  to  fortify  in  Attica.  Upon  wh'ch,  the  Atheni- 
ans grew  more  moderate  in  their  demands ;  and  a  peace  was 
concluded,  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  war,  between  the  two  states 
and  their  confederates,  for  fifty  years.  The  chief  articles  be- 
ing, that  the  garrisons  should  be  evacuated,  and  the  towns 
and  prisoners  restored,  on  both  sides. 

This  was  called  the  Nician  Peace ;  because  Nicias,  who 
was  just  the  reverse  of  his  rival  Cleon,  was  the  chief  instru- 
ment in  its  negotiation.  Besides  the  tender  concern  he  al- 
*vays  expressed  for  his  country,  he  had  more  particular  ends 


OF  GREECE. 


119 


m  obtaining  it,  in  securing  his  reputation.  He  had  been  upon 
many  expeditions,  and  had  generally  succeeded  in  them ;  yet 
he  Avas  sensible  how  much  he  owed  to  his  good  fortune,  and 
Ids  cautious  management ;  and  he  did  not  care  to  risk  what 
he  had  already  got,  for  the  hopes  of  more. 


•9@ft 


CHAPTER  X. 

From  the  Peace  of  Nicias,  to  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  JVdr. 

Every  thing  now  promised  a  restoration  of  former  tran- 
quillity. The  Boeotians  and  Corinthians  were  the  first  that 
showed  signs  of  discontent,  and  used  their  utmost  endeavours 
to  excite  fresh  troubles.  To  obviate  any  dangers  arising 
from  that  quarter,  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians  united 
in  a  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  which  served  to  render 
them  more  formidable  to  the  neighbouring  states,  and  more 
assured  with  regard  to  each  other.  Yet  still  the  former 
animosities  and  jealousies  fermented  at  bottom;  and,  while 
friendship  glossed  over  external  appearances,  fresh  discon- 
enls  were  gathering  below. 

The  character,  indeed,  of  Nicias,  was  peaceable ;  and  he 
did  all  in  his  power  to  persuade  the  Athenians  to  cultivate 
general  tranquillity.  But  a  new  promoter  of  troubles,  was 
now  beginning  to  make  his  appearance;  and,  from  him,  those 
w  o  wished  for  peace,  had  every  thing  to  fear.  This  was  no 
other  than  the  celebrated  Alcibiades,  the  disciple  of  Socrates, 
a  youth  equally  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  his  person  and 
tne  greatness  of  his  mental  accomplishments. 

The  strict  intimacy  between  Alcibiades  and  Socrates,  is 
me  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  of  his  life.  This 
philosopher,  observing  in  him  excellent  natural  qualities, 
which  were  greatly  heightened  by  the  beauty  of  his  person, 
bestowed  incredible  pains  in  cultivating  so  valuable  a  plant, 
lest,  being  neglected,  it  should  wither  as  it  grew,  and  abso- 
lutely degenerate.  Indeed,  Alcibiades  w^as  exposed  to  num- 
berless dangers  ;  arising  from  the  greatness  of  his  extraction, 
his  vast  riches,  the  authority  of  his  family,  the  credit  of  his 
ipiardians,  his  personal  talents,  his  exquisite  beauty,  and,  still 
"uore  than  these,  the  flattery  and  complaisance  of  all  who  ap« 
jiroached  him.  "  One  would  have  concluded,"  says  Plutarch, 
"  ^hat  fortune  had  surrounded  and  invested  him  with  all  these 
pretended  advantages,  as  with  so  many  ramparts  and  bul- 
warks, to  render  him  inaccessible  and  invulnerable  to  all 
darts  of  philosophy,  those  salutary  darts  which  strike  to  the 


120 


THE  IIISTOliy 


very  heart,  and  leave  in  it  the  strongest  incitements  to  virtue 
and  sohd  glory." 

But  those  very  obstacles  redoubled  the  zeal  of  Socrates. 
Notwithstanding  the  strong  endeavours  that  were  used  to 
divert  this  young  Athenian  from  a  correspondence  which 
alone  was  capable  of  securing  him  from  so  many  snares,  he 
devoted  himsell  entirely  to  it.  He  had  the  most  unbounded 
wit;  he  was  fully  sensible  of  Socrates'  extraordinary  merit, 
and  could  not  resist  the  charms  of  his  sweetly  insinuatino. 
eloquence,  which,  at  that  time,  had  a  greater  ascendant  ove? 
nim,  than  the  allurements  of  pleasure. 

He  was  so  jealous  a  disciple  of  that  great  master,  that  he 
ollowed  him,  wherever  he  went;  took  the  utmost  delight  in 
his  conversation  ;  was  extremely  well  pleased  with  his  prin- 
ciples ;  received  his  instructions,  and  even  his  reprimands, 
with  wonderful  docility;  and  was  so  moved  with  his  dis- 
courses, as  even  to  shed  tears  and  abhor  himself:  so  weiichty 
was  the  force  of  truth  in  the  mouth  of  Socrates,  and  iii  so 
odious  a  light  did  he  expose  the  vices  to  which  Alcibiades 
abandoned  himself. 

Alcibiades,  in  those  moments  when  he  listened  to  Socrates, 
differed  so  much  from  himself,  that  he  appeared  quite  ano- 
ther  man.  However,  his  headstrong,  fiery  temper,  and  his 
natural  fondness  for  pleasure,  which  was  heightened  and  in- 
flamed  by  the  discourses  and  advice  of  young  people,  soon 
plunged  him  into  his  former  irregularities  ;  and  tore  him,  as 
U  were,  from  his  master,  who  was  obliged  to  pursue  him  as 
a  slave  who  had  escaped  correction 

^  This  vicissitude  of  flights  and  returns,  of  virtuous  resolu- 
lions  and  relapses  into  vice,  continued  a  long  time;  but  still 
Socrates  was  not  disgusted  by  his  levity  ;  and  alwavs  flatter- 
ed  himself  with  the  hopes  of  bringing  him  back  to  his  duty: 
and  hence,  certainly,  arose  the  strong  mixture  of  good  and 
evil, which  always  appeared  in  his  conduct:  the  instructions 
which  his  master  had  given  him,  sometimes  prevailint?  •  and 
at  other  times,  the  fire  of  his  passions  hurrying  him*  in  J 
manner,  against  his  own  will,  into  things  of  a  quite  opposite 
natuie.  n        ^ 

Among  the  various  passions  that  were  discovered  in  him 
the  strongest  and  most  prevailing  was  a  haughty  turn  of 
mmd,  which  would  force  all  things  to  submit  to  it ;  and  could 
not  oear  a  superior,  or  even  an  equal.  Although  h-s  birth 
and  uncommon  talents,  smoothed  the  way  to  his  attaining 
the  highest  employments  in  the  republic,  there  was  nothing 
however,  to  which  he  was  so  fond  of  owing  the  credit  and 
authority  he  wanted  to  gain  over  the  people,  as  to  the  force 


OF  GREECE. 


121 


of  his  eloquence,  and  the  persuasive  grace  of  his  orations. 
To  this,  his  intimacy  with  Socrates  might  be  of  great  service. 

Alcibiades,  with  such  a  cast  of  mind  as  we  have  here  de- 
scribed, was  not  born  for  repose  ;  and  had  set  every  engine 
at  work,  to  traverse  the  treaty  lately  concluded,  between  the 
two  states;  but,  not  succeeding  in  his  attemi^,he  endeavoured 
to  prevent  its  taking  effect.  He  was  disgusted  at  the  Lace- 
dcemoniansj  because  they  directed  themselves  only  to  Nicias, 
of  whom  they  had  a  very  high  opinion;  and, on  the  contrary, 
seemed  to  take  no  manner  of  notice  of  him,  though  his  an- 
cestors had  enjoyed  the  rights  of  hospitality  among  them. 

The  first  thing  he  did  to  infringe  the  peace,  was,  having 
been  informed  that  the  people  of  Argos  only  wanted  an  op- 
portunity to  break  with  the  Spartans,  whom  they  equallv 
hated  and  feared,  he  flattered  them  secretly  with  the  hopes 
that  the  Athenians  would  succour  them,  by  suggesting  to 
them  that  they  were  ready  to  break  a  peace  which  was  no 
way  advantageous  to  them. 

Accordingly,  he  laid  hold  of  this  juncture;  and  improved 
the  pretext  given  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  to  exasperate  the 
people, both  against  them  and  Nicias;  which  had  so  good  an 
eflect,  that,  every  thing  seemed  disposed  for  a  treaty  with 
Argos  :  of  which,  the  Lacedaemonians  being  very  apprehen- 
sive, immediately  despatched  their  ambassadors  to  Athens  ; 
who,  at  first,  said  what  seemed  very  satisfactory,  that  they 
came  with  full  power  to  concert  all  matters  in  difference, 
upon  equal  terms.  The  council  received  their  propositions, 
and  the  people  were  to  assemble  the  rext  day  to  give  them 

audience.  .    . 

Alcibiades,  in  the  mean  while,  fearing  Jest  this  negotiation 
should  ruin  his  designs,  had  a  secret  conference  with  the  am- 
bassadors ;  and  persuaded  them,  under  colour  of  friendship, 
not  to  let  the  people  know,  at  first,  what  full  powers  their  com 
mission  gave  them ;  but  to  intimate  that  they  came  only  to 
treat  and  make  proposals :  for  that  otherwise  they  would 
grow  insolent  in  their  demands ;  and  extort  from  them  such 
unreasonable  terms,  as  they  could  not  with  honour  consent  to. 

They  were  so  well  satisfied  with  the  apparent  sincerity  and 
prudence  of  this  advice,  that  he  drew  them  from  Nicias,  to 
rely  entirely  upon  himself;  and  the  next  day,  when  the  peo- 
ple were  assembled,  and  the  ambassadors  introduced,  Alcibi- 
ades, with  a  very  obliging  air,  demanded  of  them,  with  what 
powers  thcv  were  come  ?'  They  made  answer,  that  they  were 
not  come  as  plenipotentiaries.  Upon  which,  he  instantly 
changed  his  voice  and  countenance,  and,  exclaimirg  against 
ihcm  as  notorious  liars,  bade  the  people  take  care  hew  they 


122 


THE  HlJSTOllY 


transacted  any  thing  with  men  on  whom  they  could  have  so 
little  dependance.  The  people  dismissed  the  ambassadors, 
m  a  rage ;  and  Nicias,  knowing  nothing  of  the  deceit,  was 
confounded,  and  in  disgrace. 

To  redeem  his  credit,  he  proposed  being  sent  once  more  to 
Sparta :  but,  not  being  able  to  gain  such  terms,  there,  as  the 
Athenians  demanded,  they  immediately,  on  his  return,  formed 
a  league  with  the  Argives,  for  a  hundred  years,  including  the 
Eleans  and  Mantincans;  which  yet  did  not,  in  terms,  cancel 
that  with  the  Lacedaemonians ;  though,  it  is  plain,  that  the 
whole  intent  of  it  was  levelled  against  them. 

Upon  this  new  alliance,  Alcibiades  was  declared  general; 
and,  though  his  best  friends  could  not  commend  the  method 
by  which  he  brought  about  his  designs,  yet  it  was  looked  upon 
as  a  great  reach  in  politics,  thus  to  divide  and  shake  almost 
all  Peloponnesus ;  and  to  remove  the  war  so  far  from  the 
Athenian  frontier,  that  even  success  would  profit  the  enemy 
but  little,  should  they  be  conquerors :  whereas,  if  they  were 
defeated,  Sparta  itself  would  be  hardly  safe. 

The  defection  of  the  confederates,  began  to  awaken  the 
jealousy  of  Sparta:  they  resolved,  therefore,  to  remedy  the 
evil,  before  it  spread  too  far;  wherefore,  drawing  out  their 
whole  force,  both  of  citizens  and  slaves,  and  being  joined  by 
their  allies,  they  encamped  almost  under  the  walls  of  Argos. 
The  Argives,  having  notice  of  their  march,  made  all  possible 
preparations,  and  came  out,  with  a  full  resolution  to  fight  them. 
15ut,  just  as  they  were  going  to  engage,  two  of  their  oflScers 
went  over  to  Agis,  the  Spartan  king  and  general,  and  proposed 
to  him  to  have  the  business  settled  by  a  reference.  He  im- 
mediately closed  with  the  offer,  granted  them  a  truce  for  four 
months,  and  drew  off  his  army;  the  whole  affair  being  trans- 
acted  by  these  three,  without  any  general  consent  or  know- 
Itdge,  on  either  side. 

The  Peloponnesians,  though  they  durst  not  disobey  their 
orders,  inveighed  grievously  against  Agis,  for  letting  such  an 
advantage  slip,  as  they  could  never  promise  to  themselves 
agiiin ;  for  they  had  actually  hemmed  in  the  enemy,  and  that 
with  the  ])est,  if  not  the  greatest  army,  that  ever  was  brought  • 
into  the  field.  And  the  Argives  were  so  little  apprehensive 
of  danger,  on  their  side,  that  they  were  not  less  incensed 
against  their  mediators,  one  of  whom  they  forced  to  the  al 
Urs  to  save  his  life,  and  confiscated  his  goods. 

Thus,  every  thing  seemed  to  favour  the  Athenian  interest; 
and  their  prosperity,  for  this  was  the  most  flourishing  period  * 
of  their  duration,  blinded  them  to  such  a  degree,  that  they 
were  persuaded  no  power  was  able  to  resist  them.     In  thw 


OF  GREECE. 


123 


I 

i 


disposition,  they  resolved  to  take  the  first  opportunity  of  add- 
ing the  island  of  Sicily  to  their  empire ;  and  soon  an  occa- 
sion offered  to  their  wish. 

Ambassadors  were  sent  from  the  people  of  Egesta,  who,  in 
quality  of  their  allies,  came  to  implore  their  aid  against  the 
inhabitants  of  Selinuta,  who  were  assisted  by  the  Syracusans. 
It  was  the  sixteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  They  re- 
presented, among  other  things,  that,  should  they  be  abandoned, 
the  Syracusans,  after  seizing  their  city,  as  they  had  done  that  of 
Leoutium,  would  take  possession  of  all  Sicily,  and  not  fail  to 
aid  the  Peloponnesians,  wiio  were  their  founders :  and,  that  • 
they  might  put  them  to  as  little  charge  as  possible,  they  of- 
fered to  pay  the  troops  that  should  be  sent  to  succour  them. 

The  Athenians,  who  had  long  waited  for  an  opportunity  to 
declare  themselves,  sent  deputies  to  Egesta,  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  affairs ;  and  to  see  whether  there  was  money 
enough  in  the  treasury,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  so  great  a 
war.  The  inhabitants  of  that  city  had  been  so  artful,  as  to 
borrow,  from  the  neighbouringnations,  a  great  number  of  gold 
and  silver  vases,  worth  an  immense  sum  of  money ;  and  of 
these  they  made  a  show,  when  the  Athenians  arrived. 

The  deputies  returned  with  those  of  Egesta,  who  carried 
sixty  talents  in  ingots,  as  a  month's  pay  for  the  galleys,  which 
they  demanded ;  and  a  promise  of  larger  sums,  which  they  said 
were  ready,  both  in  the  public  treasury,  and  in  the  temples. 

The  people,  struck  with  these  fair  appearances,  the  truth  of 
which  they  did  not  give  themselves  the  leisure  to  examine* 
and,  seduced  by  the  advantageous  reports  which  their  deputies 
made  with  the  view  of  pleasing  them,  immediately  granted  the 
Egestans  t^^cir  demand ;  and  appointed  Alcibiades,  Nicias,  and 
Lamachus,  to  command  the  fleet,  with  full  power  not  only  to 
succour  Egesta,  and  restore  the  inhabitants  of  Leontium  to 
their  city,  but  also  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  Sicily,  in  such  a 
manner  as  might  best  suit  the  interests  of  the  republic. 

Nicias  was.  appointed  one  of  the  generals,  to  his  very  great 
regret ;  for,  besides  other  motives  which  made  him  dread  the 
command,  he  shunned  it  because  Alcibiades  was  to  be  his  col- 
league. But  the  Athenians  promised  themselves  greater  suc- 
cess from  this  war,  should  they  not  resign  the  whole  conduct 
of  it  to  Alcibiades,  but  temper  his  ardour  and  audacity  with 
the  coldness  and  wisdom  of  Nicias. 

Nicias,  not  daring  to  oppose  Alcibiades  openly,  endeavour- 
ed to  do  it  indirectly,  by  staning  a  great  number  of  difficul- 
ties, drawn  particularly  from  the  great  expense  of  this  expe- 
dition. He  declared,  that,  since  they  were  resolved  upon  war, 
they  ought  to  carry  it  on  in  such  a  manner,  as  might  suit  the 


124 


THE  IllSTOKY 


exalted  reputation  to  which  Athens  had  attained :  that  a  fleet 
was  not  sufficient  to  oppose  so  formidable  a  power,  as  that  of 
the  Syracusans  and  their  allies ;  that  thev  must  raise  an  army 
composed  of  good  horse  and  foot,  if  they  desired  to  act  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  so  noble  a  design ;  that,  besides  their  fleet 
which  was  to  make  them  masters  at  sea,  they  must  have  a 
great  number  of  transports,  to  carry  provisions  perpetually 
to  the  army,  which  otherwise  could  not  possibly  subsist  in  ai 
enemy  s  country;  that  they  must  carry  with  them  vast  sumf 
at  money,  without  waiting  for  that  promised  them  by  the  citi 
zens  ol  Lgesta  ;  who  perhaps  were  ready  in  words  only,  and 
very  probably  might  break  their  promise ;  that  they  ou^ht  to 
weigh  and  examine  the  disparity  between  themselves  and  their 
enemies,  with  regard  to  the  conveniences  and  wants  of  the 
army;  the  Syracusans  being  in  their  own  country,  in  the 
midst  of  powerful  allies,  disposed  by  inclination,  as  well  as 
engaged  by  interest,  to  assist  them,  with  men,  arms,  horses 
and  provisions;  whereas,  the  Athenians  would  carry  on  the 
war  m  a  remote  country,  possessed  by  their  enemies ;  where, 
in  the  winter,  news  could  not  be  brought  them,  in  less  than 
lour  months;  a  country,  where  all  things  would  oppose  the 
Athenians,  and  nothing  be  procured,  but  by  force  of  arms- 

Khn  W  Z  ^  'f''''  !''^  S:reatest  ignominy  on  the  Athenians; 
should  they  be  forced  to  abandon  their  enterprise;  and  there- 
by become  the  scorn  and  contempt  of  their  enemies,  by  their 
neglecting  to  take  all  the  precautions  which  so  important  a 
design  required ;  that,  as  for  himself,  he  was  determined  nol 
o  go,  unless  he  was  provided  with  all  things  necessary  for 
the  expedition,  because  the  safety  of  the  whole  army  depend- 
ed  on  that  circumstance;  and  that  he  would  not  rely  on  ca 
price,  or  the  precarious  engagements  of  the  allies. 

Nicias  had  fluttered  himself  that  this  speech  would  cool 
the  ardour  oi  the  i)eople,  whereas  it  only  inflamed  it  the  more 
Immediately,  the  generals  had  full  powers  given  them,  to  raise 
as  many  troops,  and  fit  out  as  many  galleys,  as  thev  should 
judge  necessary:  and  the  levies  were  accordingly  carried  on. 
in  Athens  and  other  places,  with  inexpressible  activity 

}V  hen  prepar2d,  they  accordingly  set  sail,  after  having  an- 
pointed  Corcyra  the  rendezvous  for  most  of  the  allies,  with 
such  ships  as  were  to  carry  the  provisions  and  warlike  stores. 
All  the  citizens,  as  well  as  foreigners,  in  Athens,  Hocked,  by 
day-break,  to  the  pert  of  Pyrocus :  the  former  attended  bv  their 
children,  relations,  friends  and  companions,  with  a  joy  over- 
cast with  a  little  sorrow,  upon  their  bidding  adieu  to  persons 
hat  were  as  dear  to  them  as  life,  and  who  were  settim?  out 
on  a  distant  and  very  dangerous  expedition,  from  which  it 


OF  GREECE. 


\k% 


was  uncertain  whether  they  would  ever  return ;  though  they 
fiatiered  themselves  with  the  hopes  that  it  would  be  successful. 
The  foreigners  came  thither  to  feed  their  eyes  with  a  sight, 
which  was  highly  worthy  their  curiosity;  for  no  single  city 
in  the  world  had  ever  fitted  out  so  gallant  a  fleet.  Those,  in- 
deed, which  had  been  sent  against  Epidaurus  and  Potidaea, 
were  as  considerable,  with  regard  to  the  number  of  soldiers 
and  ships  ;  but  they  were  not  equipped  with  so  much  magni- 
ficence, neither  was  their  voyage  so  long,  nor  their  enter- 
prise so  important. 

Here,  was  seen  a  land  and  naval  army,  provided  with  the 
utmost  care,  and  at  the  expense  of  particular  persons,  as  well 
as  of  the  public,  with  all  things  necessary,  on  account  of  the 
length  of  the  voyage,  and  the  duration  of  the  war.  The  city 
furnished  a  hundred  empty  galleys ;  that  is,  sixty  light  ves 
sels,  and  forty  to  transport  the  soldiers  heavily  armed.  Every 
mariner  received  daily  a  drachma,  or  ten  pence  English,  for 
his  pay,  exclusive  of  what  the  captains  of  ships  gave  the  row- 
ers of  the  first  bench.  Add  to  this,  the  pomp  and  magnifi- 
cence universally  displayed  ;  every  one  striving  to  eclipse  the 
rest,  and  each  captain  endeavouring  to  make  his  ship  the 
lightest,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  gayest  in  the  whole  fleet. 

I  shall  but  briefly  notice  the  choice  of  the  soldiers  and  sea- 
meii,  who  were  the  flower  of  the  Athenians ;  their  emulation 
with  regard  to  the  beauty  and  neatness  of  their  arms  and 
equipage  ;  and  more  than  that  their  oflicers,  who  had  laid  out 
considerable  sums,  purely  to  distinguish  themselves,  and  to 
give  foreigners  an  advantageous  idea  of  their  persons  and  cir- 
cumstances ;  so  that  this  sight  had  the  air  of  a  pageant,  in 
which  the  utmost  magnificence  is  displayed,  rather  than  of  a 
warlike  expedition.  But  the  boldness  and  greatness  of  the 
design,  still  exceeded  its  expense  and  splendour. 

When  the  ships  were  loaded,  and  the  troops  got  on  board, 
the  trumpet  sounded,  and  solemn  prayers  were  off*ered  up,  for 
the  success  of  the  expedition ;  gold  and  silver  cups  were  filled 
every  where  with  wine,  and  the  accustomed  libations  were 
poured  out:  the  people  who  lined  the  shore  shouting  at  the 
same  time,  and  lifting  up  their  hands  to  heaven,  to  wish  their 
fellow-citizens  a  good  voyage  and  success. 

The  hymn  being  sung,  and  the  ceremonies  ended,  the  ships 
sailed,  one  after  another,  out  of  the  harbour ;  after  which, 
they  strove  to  outsail  each  other,  till  the  whole  fleet  met  at 
-£gina.  From  thence,  it  sailed  to  Corcyra ;  where  the  army 
of  the  allies  was  assembled  with  the  rest  of  the  fleet. 

Having  now  arrived  at  Sicily,  the  generals  were  divided  mi 
their  opinions,  as  to  the  place  where  they  should  make  a  de- 


.26 


THE  HISTORy 


scent,  l^uniachus,  one  of  the  generals,  was  for  sailing  direct 
ly  ior  Syracuse.  He  urged,  that  it  was  as  yet  unprovided, 
and  under  the  greatest  consternation ;  that  an  army  was  al- 
ways most  terrible  on  its  approach,  before  the  enemy  had 
linic  to  recollect,  and  make  danger  familiar.  These  reasons 
however,  were  overruled.  It  was  agreed  to  reduce  the  smaller 
cities  first ;  when,  having  detached  ten  galleys,  only  to  take  a 
view  ot  the  situation  and  harbour  of  Syracuse,  they  landed, 
with  the  rest  of  their  forces,  and  surprised  Catana. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  enemies  of  Alcibiades  had  taken  oc- 
casion,  irom  his  absence,  to  attack  him,  with  redoubled  vigour 
1  hey  aggravated  his  misconduct,  in  neglecting  the  propel 
method  of  attack  ;  and  enforced  their  accusation,  by  allejjinp 
that  he  had  prolaned  the  mysteries  of  Ceres.  This  was  suf 
hcient  to  inauce  the  giddy  multitude  to  recal  their  general; 
but,  lor  fear  of  raismg  a  tumult  in  the  army,  they  only  sen 
him  orders  to  return  to  Athens,  to  pacify  the  people,  by  his 

Alcibiades  obeyed  the  orders,  with  seeming  submission; 
but,  reflecting  on  the  inconstancy  and  caprice  of  his  judges 
the  instant  he  arrived  at  Thurium,  and  had  got  on  shorefhe 
disappeared;  and  eluded  the  pursuit  of  those  who  soukt 
after  him :  the  galley,  therefore,  returned  without  him ;  and 
the  people,  in  a  rage,  condemned  him  to  death,  for  his  contu 
macy      His  whole  estate  was  confiscated ;  and  all  the  orders 
ot  religion  were  commanded  to  curse  him.     Some  time  after 
news  being  brought  him  that  the  Athenians  had  condemned 
him  to  death;  "  I  hope,  one  day,"  said  he,  « to  make  theiri 
sensible  that  I  am  still  alive." 

^J^'^^yY^''^^""^  i\ad  by  this  time,  put  themselves  in  apos- 
tureot  defence ;  and,  finding  that  Nicias  did  not  advance  to- 
wards  them,  they  talked  of  attacking  him  in  his  camp;  an^ 
some  of  them  asked,  in  a  scoffing  way,  whether  he  was  come 
Hto  Sici  y  to  settle  at  Catana.  He  wis  roused  by  this  insuTt! 
and  resolved  to  make  the  best  of  his  way  to  Syracuse  He 
durst  not  attempt  it  by  land,  for  want  of  cavklry:  and  he 
thought  It  e.,ually  hazardous  to  make  a  descent  by  sea,  upon 
an  enemy  who  was  so  well  prepared  to  receive  him :  ho  veve^ 
he  chose  the  latter  way,  and  succeeded  in  it  by  a  stratagem 

the  Syracusans,  and  inform  them  that  the  Athenians  lay  every 
night  in  the  town,  without  their  arms :  and,  that  early  in  the 

Ihem '"!;•''"  '  fif'-"^"  ^"^  appointed,  they  might  surprise 
them     seize  on  their  camp  with  all  their  arms  and  bag/aire- 
burn  their  fleet  in  the  harbour,  and  destroy  the  whole^fX 
Ihe  Syracusans  gave  credit  to  him,  and  marched,  with  aU 


OF  GREECE. 


127 


their  forces,  towards  Catana :  of  which,  Nicias  had  no  sooner 
notice,  than  he  embarked  his  troops ;  and,  steering  away  for 
Syracuse,  landed  them  there,  the  next  morning,  and  fortified 
himself  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  The  Syracusans  were 
so  provoked  at  this  trick,  that  they  immediately  returned  to 
Syracuse,  and  presented  themselves  without  the  walls,  in  o*i> 
der  of  battle. 

Nicias  marched  out  of  his  trenches,  to  meet  them ;  and  a 
very  sharp  action  ensued  ;  wherein,  at  length,  the  Athenians 
prevailed  ;  and  forced  the  enemy  back  to  the  city,  after  havinp 
killed  two  hundred  and  sixty  of  them  and  their  confederates, 
with  the  loss  of  fifty  of  their  own  men.  They  were  not  as 
yet  in  a  condition  to  attack  the  city,  and,  therefore,  took  up 
their  winter  quarters  at  Catana  and  Naxes. 

The  year  following,  greater  projects  were  undertaken. 
Having  received  a  supply  of  horse  from  Athens,  with  provi- 
sions, and  other  stores  of  war,  Nicias  set  sail  for  Syracuse, 
in  order  to  block  it  up,  by  sea  and  land.  In  this  manner,  did 
the  little  state  of  Athens  spread  terror  among  all  the  neigh- 
bouring states  ;  and  now,  risen  to  its  utmost  height,  began  to 
aspire  at  universal  empire. 

Athens  had  already  been  the  mistress  of  arts  and  philoso- 
phy :  she  now,  with  inverted  ambition,  aimed  at  setting  man- 
kind an  example  of  the  arts  of  conquest  and  of  war;  but  she 
had  never  considered,  that  a  petty  state,  raised  artificially  into 
power,  is  liable  to  a  thousand  accidents,  in  its  way  to  conquest. 

The  Athenians  had  now  sent  out  their  whole  force  into 
Sicily  ;  and,  while  they  fought  to  decide  the  fate  of  Syracuse, 
they  were  in  fact  contending  for  their  own ;  the  existence  of 
Athens  and  Syracuse  depended  so  much  on  the  event  of  the 
present  invasion,  that  both  sides  fought  with  the  utmost  per- 
severance, and  historians  have  been  minute  in  the  detail. 

The  siege  was  now  carried  on  in  a  more  regular  and  skilful 
manner,  than  had  ever  been  practised  before ;  and  men  were 
taught  a  new  lesson,  as  well  in  the  arts  of  attack,  as  of  de- 
fence. Nicias  found  it  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  gain 
Epipolae,  a  high  hill  which  commanded  the  city,  and  had  a 
steep  craggy  passage  up  to  it.  The  Syracusans  were  so  sen- 
sible of  the  importance  of  this  post,  that  they  had  ordered  a 
detachment  of  seven  hundred  men  to  march,  upon  a  signal 
given,  to  its  defence ;  but  Nicias  had  landed  his  men  in  a  little 
remote  harbour,  so  Secretly  and  so  suddenly,  that  they  easily 
made  themselves  masters  of  it;  and  the  seven  hundred, run- 
ning up  from  the  plains,  in  a  confused  manner,  to  dispossess 
them,  were  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  three  hundred  ind  their 
leader. 


128 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


18 


Nicias  built  a  fort  there,  as  a  magazine;  and  proceeded  t« 
invest  ihe  town,  on  the  land  side,  so  as  to  prevent  any  com- 
munication with  the  country.  The  enemy  endeavouring  to 
destrox  his  works,  and  render  them  useless,  several  skirmishes 
ensued,  wherein  the  Athenians  had  generally  the  advantage^ 
hat,  in  one  of  them,  Lamachus,  being  pressed  hard,  and  aban- 
doned by  his  men,  was  killed. 

The  Syracusans,  still  intent  on  the  recovery  of  Epipolae 
orden  J  thither  another  detachment.  Nicias  was  at  this  time 
sick  a.  the  fort,  and  in  bed,  with  only  his  servants  about  him; 
but,  w  lien  he  found  the  enemy  were  forcing  his  entrenchments 
he  go:  up,  and  set  fire  to  the  engines  and  other  wood  that  lay 
scattei-ed  about  the  fort;  which  had  so  good  an  effect,  that  it 
serve  1  as  a  signal  to  his  own  troops  to  come  up  to  his  relief, 
and  so  terrified  and  confounded  those  of  the  enemy,  that  thev 
retreated  into  the  city. 

Tlenceforth  Nicias,  who  was  now  sole  general,  conceived 
great  hopes.  Several  cities  of  Sicily,  which  hitherto  had  no! 
dechred  for  either  side, came  and  joined  him;  and  there  ar- 
rived, from  all  quarters,  vessels  laden  with  provisions  for  his 
army;  all  parties  being  eager  to  go  over  to  him,  because  he 
had  acquired  the  superiority,  and  been  exceedingly  success- 
ful m  all  his  undertakings.  The  Syracusans,  seeing  them- 
sehes  blocked  up  both  by  sea  and  land,  and  losing  all  hopes 
of  being  able  to  defend  their  city  any  longer,  already  pro- 
jv»sed  an  accommodation. 

Gylippus,  who  was  coming  from  Lacedaemon  to  their  as- 
SI  stance,  having  heard,  in  his  passage,  the  extremity  to  which 
niey  were  reduced,  and  looking  upon  the  whole  island  as  lost, 
nevertheless  sailed  forward,  not  with  the  view  of  defending 
Sicily,  but  only  to  preserve  to  the  nations  of  Italy  such  cities 
ds  were  subject  to  them  in  that  island,  if  it  were  not  too  late, 
and  if  this  could  be  done ;  for  fame  had  declared,  in  all  places, 
that  the  Athenians  had  already  taken  possession  of  the  whole 
island,  and  were  headed  by  a  general  whose  wisdom  and  good 
fortune  rendered  him  invincible. 

The  fortifications  of  the  Athenians,  were  now  almost  com- 
pleted :  they  had  drawn  a  double  wall,  nearly  half  a  league  in 
length,  along  the  plain  and  the  fens,  towards  the  great  port ; 
and  had  almost  reached  it.  There  now  remained,  on  one  side! 
only  a  small  part  of  the  wall  to  be  finished ;  and  the  Syracu- 
sans were  on  the  brink  of  ruin ;  they  had  no  hopes  left;  they 
were  unable  to  defend  themselves,  and  they  knew  not  where 
to  look  for  succours ;  for  this  reason,  they  resolved  to  surren- 
der, and  a  council  was  held,  to  settle  the  articles  of  capitula 
Uon  which  were  to  be  presented  to  Nicias 


i 


i 


It  was  at  that  very  instant,  and  in  this  most  distressful 
mncture,  that,  a  messenger  arrived  at  Syracuse,  from  Corinth, 
with  news  of  speedy  relief.  The  whole  body  of  citizens 
flocked  round  the  messenger  of  such  welcome  information 
He  informed  them,  that  Gylippus,  the  Lacedaemonian  gene- 
ral, would  be  with  them  immediately,  followed  by  a  great 
many  other  galleys  which  had  come  to  his  aid.  The  Syracu- 
sans astonished,  or  rather  stupified,  as  it  were,  with  this  nrws, 
could  scarcely  believe  what  they  heard. 

Whilst  they  were  thus  fluctuating,  and  in  doubt,  a  coui  ier 
arrived,  from  Gylippus,  to  inform  them  of  his  approach ;  nnd 
ordered  them  to  march  out  all  their  troops,  to  meet  him. 
He  himself,  after  taking  a  fort  in  his  way,  marched,  in  onler 
of  battle,  directly  for  Epipolae;  and,  ascending  by  Eurycl  is, 
as  the  Athenians  had  done,  he  prepared  to  attack  them  fn^m 
without,  while  the  Syracusans  should  charge  them,  on  tht  ir 
side,  with  the  forces  of  Syracuse. 

The  Athenians,  exceedingly  surprised  by  his  arrival,  drew 
up  hastily,  and  without  order,  under  the  wall :  with  regard  (o 
himself,  laying  down  his  arms  when  he  approached,  he  sent 
word,  by  a  herald,  that  he  would  allow  the  Athenians  five  days 
to  leave  Sicily.  Nicias  did  not  condescend  to  make  the  least 
answer  to  this  proposal ;  and  some  of  his  soldiers,  bursting 
out  a  laughing,  asked  the  herald,  whether  the  presence  of  a 
Lacedaemonian  privateer,  and  the  trifling  wand  of  a  herald, 
could  make  any  change  in  the  present  state  of  the  city.  Both 
sides,  therefore,  prepared  for  battle. 

Gylippus  began  by  storming  the  fort  of  Labdalla,  and  cut- 
ting in  pieces  all  who  were  found  in  it.  The  Athenians,  in 
Ihe  mean  time,  were  not  idle,  in  forming  intrenchments,  to 
oppose  him  ;  while  the  besieged  Avere  equally  assiduous,  in 
cutting  down  and  breaking  through  those  walls  and  circum- 
vallations,  which  were  carried  round  their  city.  At  length, 
both  sides  drew  up  their  forces,  in  battle  array,  between  the 
walls  which  the  Athenians  had  raised  to  keep  off"  the  enemy. 

In  the  first  eno:agement,  the  cavalry  of  Gylippus  being 
rendered  useless  from  the  narrowness  of  the  place,  to  reani- 
mate his  soldiers,  by  doing  them  justice,  he  had  the  courage 
to  reproach  himself  for  their  ill  success ;  and  to  declare  pub- 
licly, that  he,  not  they,  had  occasioned  the  late  defeat,  because 
he  made  them  fight  in  too  narrow  a  spot  of  ground.  How- 
ever, he  promised  soon  to  give  them  an  opportunity  of  re- 
covering both  their  honour  and  his ;  and,  accordingly,  the 
very  next  day,  he  led  them  against  the  enemy,  after  having 
exhorted  thein,  in  the  strongest  terms,  to  behave  in  a  manner 
vorthy  of  their  ancient  glory. 


130 


THE  HISTORY 


Nicias,  perceiving,  that  though  he  should  not  desire  to 
come  to  a  battle,  it  would,  however,  be  absolutely  necessary 
to  prevent  the  enemy  from  extending  their  line  beyond  the 
contravallation,  to  which  they  were  already  very  near,  (be- 
cause otherwise  this  would  be  granting  them  a  certain  vic- 
tory) therefore  marched  boldly  against  the  Syracusans.  Gy- 
lippus  brought  up  his  troops  beyond  the  place  where  the 
walls  terminated  on  both  sides,  in  order  that  he  might  leave 
the  more  room  to  extend  his  battle ;  when,  charging  the  ene- 
my's left  wing  with  his  horse,  he  put  it  to  flight,  and  soon 
afterwards  defeated  their  right. 

We  have  an  instance  of  what  the  experience  and  abilities 
of  a  great  captain  are  capable  of  producing:  Gylippus,  with 
the  same  men,  the  same  arms,  the  same  horses,  and  the  same 
ground,  by  only  changing  his  order  of  battle,  defeated  the 
Athenians,  and  beat  them  quite  to  their  camp.  The  following 
night,  the  victors  carried  on  their  wall  beyond  the  wall  of 
contravallation  of  the  Athenians,  and  thereby  deprived  them 
of  all  hopes  of  being  able  to  surround  the  city. 

Nicias,  ever  since  the  arrival  of  Gylippus,  had  been  pu« 
upon  the  defensive ;  and,  as  he  daily  lost  ground  in  the  coun 
try,  he  retired  towards  the  sea,  to  keep  that  open,  in  case  of 
accidents,  and  to  bring  in  provisions.  For  this  purpose,  he 
seized  Plemmyrium,  near  the  great  harbour ;  where  he  built 
three  forts,  and  kept  himself  up,  as  it  were,  in  a  garrison. 
Gylippus  took  this  opportunity  to  gain  over  the  inland  cities; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  fleet  arrived,  that  was  expected 
from  Corinth. 

Nicias,  under  these  circumstances,  wrote  a  very  melan. 
choly  account  of  his  affairs  to  Athens ;  that  the  enemy  were 
become  so  superior  to  him,  that  he  was  not  in  a  condition  to 
force  their  intrenchmcnts ;  and  that,  instead  of  besieging 
them,  he  was  now  besieged  himself:  that  the  towns  revolted 
from  him,  the  slaves  and  mercenaries  deserted:  that  his 
troops  were  employed  in  guarding  the  forts  and  fetching  in 
provisions,  and  that,  in  this  latter  service,  many  of  them  were 
cut  off  by  the  enemy's  horse ;  that  the  fleet  was  in  as  bad 
condition,  as  the  army;  and  that,  in  short,  without  a  speedy 
reinforcement  of  men,  ships,  and  money,  equal  to  what  he 
had  at  first  set  out  with,  it  was  in  vain  to  attempt  any  thing 
farth^^r :  then,  as  to  himself,  he  com})lained  of  his  being  af- 
flicted  with  sharp  ne])hritic  pains,  which  rendered  him  inca- 
pable of  going  on  with  the  service;  and  therefore  pressed  to 
be  recalled. 

The  Athenians  were  so  affected  with  this  letter,  that  they 
named  Eurymcdon  and  Demosthenes,  (not  the  great  orator^ 


OF  GREECE. 


131 


to  go  over  with  fjesh  supplies;  the  former,  immediately, 
wiih  ten  galleys,  and  the  other,  early  in  the  spring,  with  d 
stronger  force.  At  the  same  time,  they  appointed  Meander 
and  Euthydcmus,  to  act  as  assistants  to  Nicias,  but  would 
not  grant  his  request  of  coming  home. 

In  the  mean  time,  Gylippus,  who  had  made  the  tour  of 
Sicily,  returned,  with  as  many  men  as  he  could  raise  in  the 
whole  island  ;  and  prevailed  with  the  Syracusans  to  fit  out 
the  strongest  fleet  in  their  power,  and  to  hazard  a  battle  at 
sea,  on  the  presumption,  that  the  success  would  answer  the 
greatness  of  the  enterprise.  This  advice  was  strongly  en- 
forced by  Hermocrates,  who  exhorted  the  Syracusans  not  to 
abandon,  to  their  enemies,  the  empire  of  the  seas.  He  ob- 
served, that  the  Athenians  themselves  had  not  received  it 
from  their  ancestors,  nor  been  alwTiys  possessed  of  it ;  that 
the  Persian  war  had,  in  a  manner,  forced  them  into  the  know- 
ledge of  naval  affairs,  notwithstanding  two  great  obstacles, 
their  disposition,  and  the  situation  of  their  city,  which  stood 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea ;  that  they  had  made 
themselves  formidable  to  other  nations,  not  so  much  by  their 
real  strength,  as  by  their  courage  and  intrepidity ;  that  they 
ought  to  copy  them ;  and,  since  they  had  to  contend  with 
enemies  who  were  so  enterprising,  it  was  fit  they  should  be 
equally  daring. 

This  advice  was  approved,  and  accordingly  a  large  fleet 
was  equipped.  Gylippus  led  out  all  his  land  forces,  in  the 
r.ight  time,  to  attack  the  forts  of  Plemmyrium.  Thirty-five 
galleys  of  Syracuse,  which  were  in  the  great  harbour,  and 
forty-five  in  the  lesser,  which  was  an  arsenal  for  ships,  were 
ordered  to  advance  towards  Plemmyrium,  to  amaze  the  Athe- 
nians, who  would  find  themselves  attacked,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  ut  the  same  time. 

The  Athenians,  at  this  news,  went  on  board  also ;  and,  with 
twenty-five  ships,  sailed  to  fight  the  thirty-five  Syracusan  ves- 
sels, which  were  sailing  out  against  them  from  the  great  har- 
bour ;  and  opposed  thirty-five  more  to  the  forty-five  of  the 
enemy  which  were  come  out  of  the  little  port.  A  sharp  en 
gagement  was  fought,  at  the  mouth  of  the  great  harbour ; 
one  party  endeavouring  to  force  their  way  into  it,  and  the 
other  to  keep  them  out. 

Those  who  defended  the  forts  of  Plemmyrium,  having 
flocked  to  the  shore,  to  view  the  battle,  Gylippus  attacked 
the  forts  unexpectedly  by  day-break;  and,  having  carried  the 
greatest  of  them  by  storm,  the  soldiers  who  defended  t!ie 
othtr  two  were  so  terrified,  that  they  abandoned  them  in  a 
moment. 


M 


132 


THE  HISTORVr 


After  this  advantage,  the  Syracusans  sustained  a  consider- 
rible  loss.  Such  of  their  vessels  as  fought  at  the  entrance  of 
the  harbour  (after  having  forced  the  Athenians)  bulged  furi- 
ously  one  against  the  other,  as  they  entered  it  in  disorder ; 
and,  by  this  means,  shifted  the  victory  to  their  enemies,  who 
were  not  contented  with  pursuing,  but  also  gave  chase  to 
those  who  were  victorious  in  the  great  harbour.  Eleven  Sy- 
racusan  galleys  were  sunk,  and  great  numbers  of  the  sailors 
in  them  were  killed.  Three  were  taken ;  but  the  Athenians 
likewise  lost  three ;  and,  after  towing  off  those  of  the  enemy, 
they  raised  a  trophy,  in  a  little  island  lying  before  Plem' 
myrium,  and  retired  to  the  centre  of  their  camp. 

One  circumstance,  which  the  besieged  considered  of  the 
gieatest  importance,  was,  to  attempt  a  second  engagement 
both  by  sea  and  land,  before  the  fleet  and  other  succours,  sen. 
by  the  Athenians,  should  arrive.  They  had  concerted  fresn 
measures  for  a  battle  at  sea,  by  improving  from  the  error.- 
they  had  committed  in  the  last  engagement. 

The  change  made  in  the  galleys\vas,their  prows  were  no^ 
sliorter,  and,  at  the  same  time,  stronger  and  more  solid,  than 
before.     For  this  purpose,  they  fixed  great  pieces  of  timber, 
projectmg  forward  on  each  side  of  the  prows,  and,  to  these 
piece?,  they  joined  beams,  by  way  of  props.     The  beams  ex- 
tended  to  the  length  of  six  cubits,  on  each  side  of  the  vessel 
both  within  and  without.     By  this,  they  hoped  to  gain  an 
advantage  over  the  galleys  of  the  Athenians,  which  did  not 
dare,  because  of  the  weakness  of  their  prows,  to  attack  an 
enemy  m  front, but  only  in  flank;  not  to  mention, that, should 
the  battle  be  fought  in  the  harbour,  they  would  not  have  room 
to  spread  themselves,  nor  to   pass  between  two  galleys    in 
which  lay  their  greatest  art,  nor  to  tack  about,  after  they 
should  have  been  repulsed,  in  order  to  return  to  the  charge- 
whereas,  the  Syracusans,  by  their  being  masters  of  the  whole 
extent  oi  the  harbour,  would  have  all  these  advantages;  and 
might  reciprocally  assist  one  another.    On  these  circum'stan 
ces  the  latter  founded  their  hopes  of  victory. 

Gylippus,  therefore,  first  drew  all  the  infantry  ott  of  the 
camp,  and  advanced  towards  that  part  of  the  contravallation 
of  the  Athenians,  which  faced  the  city;  whilst  the  troops  of 
Olympia  marched  towards  the  other,  a!id  their  galleys  set  sail. 
Nicias  did  not  desire  to  venture  a  second  battle  •  sayinir* 
tha*  as  be  expected  a  fresh  fleet  every  moment,  and  a  great 
reinforcement  under  Demosthenes,  it  would  betray  the  i.?reat- 
cst  wani  of  judgment,  should  he  and  his  troops,  who  wp^e  in- 
Tenor  in  number  to  those  of  the  enemy,  and  already  fatifjued. 
hazard  a  battle,  without  being  forced  to  it.  '         o       » 


OF  GREECE. 


133 


On  the  contrary,  Menander  and  Euthydemus,  who  had  just 
before  been  appointed  to  share  the  command  with  Nioias  till 
the  arrival  of  Demosthenes,  fired  with  ambition,  and  jealous 
of  those  generals,  were  eager  to  perform  some  exploit,  to  be- 
reave the  one  of  his  glory,  and  if  possible  eclipse  that  of  the 

other. 

The  pretence  alleged  by  them,  on  this  occasion,  was,  the 
fame  and  reputation  of  Athens  ;  and  they  asserted,  with  such 
vehemence,  that  it  would  be  entirely  destroyed,  should  they 
shun  the  battle,  as  the  Syracusans  offered  it  to  them,  that 
they  at  last  forced  Nicias  to  a  compliance.  The  Athenians 
had  seventy-five  galleys,  and  the  Syracusans  eighty. 

The  first  day,  the  fleets  continued  in  sight  of  each  other, 
in  the  great  harbour,  without  engaging,  and  only  a  few  skir- 
mishes passed ;  aftec  which,  both  panics  retired,  while  the 
land  forces  acted  in  the  same  manner.  The  Syracusans  did 
not  make  the  least  motion  the  second  day. 

Nicias,  taking  advantage  of  this  inactivity,  caused  the 
transports  to  draw  up,  in  a  line,  at  some  distance  from  one ' 
another,  in  order  that  his  galleys  might  retire  behind  them, 
with  safety,  in  case  he  should  be  defeated.  Next  morning, 
the  Syracusans  came  up  sooner  than  usual,  when  a  great  part 
of  the  day  was  spent  in  skirmishing ;  after  which,  they  retired. 

The  Athenians  did  not  suppose  they  would  return;  but 
imagined  that  fear  would  make  them  fly.  But,  having  re- 
freshed themselves  with  great  diligence,  and  returned  x)n 
board  their  galleys,  they  attacked  the  Athenians,  who  were 
far  from  expecting  them.  Being  now  forced  to  return  im- 
mediately on  board  their  ships,  the  Athenians  entered  them 
in  great  disorder ;  so  that  they  had  not  time  to  draw  them 
up'in  a  line  of  battle ;  and  most  of  the  sailors  were  fasting. 
Victory  did  not  long  continue  in  suspense.  After  making  a 
short  and  slight  resistance,  they  retired  behind  their  line  of 
transports.  The  enemy  pursued  them  thither, but  were  stt^pped 
by  the  yards  of  those  ships,  to  which  were  fixed  dolphins  of 
lead :  these  being  very  heavy,  had  they  falleit  on  the  enemy's 
galleys,  would  have  sunk  them  at  once.  In  this  engagement 
the  Athenians  lost  seven  galleys ;  and  a  great  number  of  sol 
diers  were  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners. 

This  loss  threw  Nicias  into  the  utmost  consternation :  all 
the  misfortunes  he  had  met  with,  since  he  had  enjoyed  the 
supreme  command,  came  into  his  mind ;  and  he  was  now  in- 
volved in  a  greater  than  any  of  lhem,by  his  complying  with 
the  advice  of  his  colleagues.  Whilst  he  was  revclving  these 
gloomy  ideas,  the  day  after  the  battle,  Demosthenes*  fleet  was 
seen  coming  forward,  in  great  pomp,  and  with  such  an  air 


'  1 


134 


THE  HISTOUY 


i 


as  might  fill  the  enemy  with  dread.  This  fleet  consisted  of 
seventy-thrtie  galleys,  on  board  of  which  were  five  thousand 
fighting  men,  and  about  three  thousand  archers,  slingers,  and 
bowmen.  All  these  galleys  were  richly  trimmed,  their  prows 
being  adorned  with  shining  streamers,  manned  willi  stout 
rowers,  commanded  by  good  officers,  and  echoing  with  the 
sound  of  clarions  and  trumpets:  Demosthenes  having  aiTectcd 
an  air  of  pomp  and  triumph,  purposely  to  strike  terror  into 
the  enemv. 

This  gallant  sight  alarmed  them  beyond  expression.  They 
did  not  see  any  end,  or  even  the  least  suspension  of  their  ca- 
lamities. All  they  had  done,  hitherto,  or  suffered,  was  as 
nothing,  and  their  work  was  to  be  begun  again.  What  hopes 
could  they  entertain  of  being  able  to  weary  out  the  patience 
of  the  Athenians  ;  since,  though  they  had  a  camp  intrenched 
m  the  middle  of  Attica,  they  were  yet  able  to  send  a  second 
army  into  Sicily,  as  considerable  as  the  former;  and  their 
power  as  well  as  their  courage,  seemed,  notwithstanding  all 
their  losses,  instead  of  diminishing,  daily  to  increase  ? 

Demosthenes,  having  made  an  exact  inquiry  into  the  state 
of  things,  imagined  it  would  not  be  proper  for  him  to  lose 
time,  as  Niciai  had  done,  who  having  spread  a  universal 
terror,  at  his  first  arrival,  became  afterwards  the  object  of 
contempt,  for  having  wintered  in  Catana,  instead  of  going 
directly  to  Syracuse ;  and  had  afterwards  given  Gylippus  an 
opportunity  of  throwing  troops  into  it. 

He  flattered  himself  with  the  hopes  that  he  should  be  able 
lo  carry  the  city  at  the  first  attack,  by  taking  advantage  of 
the  alarm  which  the  news  of  his  arrival  would  spread  through 
every  part  of  it ;  and,  by  that  means,  should  immediately  put 
an  end  to  the  war:  otherwise,  he  intended  to  raise  the  siege 
and  no  longer  harass  and  lessen  the  troops,  by  fighting  battles 
never  decisive  ;  nor  quite  exhaust  the  city  of  Athens,  by  em 
ploying  its  treasures  in  needless  expenses. 

Nicias,  terrified  by  this  bold  and  precipitate  resolution  of 
Demosthenes,  conjured  him  not  to  be  so  hasty;  but  to  take 
time  to  weigh  things  deliberately,  that  he  might  have  no 
cause  to  repent  of  what  he  should  do.  He  obsi-rved  to  him 
that  the  enemy  would  be  ruined  by  delays ;  that  their  pro' 
visions,  as  well  as  money,  were  entirely  exhausted  ;  that  their 
allies  were  going  to  abandon  them  ;  that  they  must  soon  be 
reduced  to  such  extremity,  for  want  of  provisions,  as  would 
fot-ce  them  to  surrender,  as  they  had  before  resolved.  For 
there  were  certain  persons  in  Syracuse,  who  held  a  secret 
correspondence  with  Nicias,  and  exhorted  him  not  to  be  im- 
patient,  because  the  Syracusans  were  tired  of  the  war  with 


OF  GREECE. 


135 


Gylippus ;  and,  that  should  the  necessity  to  which  they  were 
reduced,  be  ever  so  little  increased,  they  would  surrender  at 
discretion. 

As  Nicias  did  not  explain  himself  clearly,  and  would  not 
declare,  in  express  terms,  that  sure  and  certain  advices  were 
sent  him  of  whatever  was  transacted  in  the  city,  his  remon- 
strances were  considered  as  an  effect  of  the  timidity  and 
slowness  with  which  he  had  always  been  reproached.  "  Such," 
«aid  they,  "  are  his  usual  protractions,  delays,  distrusts,  and 
fearful  precaution,  whereby  he  has  deadened  all  the  vivacity, 
wid  extinguished  all  the  ardour  of  the  troops,  in  not  march- 
ing them  immediately  against  the  enemy ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, by  deferring  to  attack  them,  till  his  own  forces  were 
weakened  and  despised,"  This  made  the  rest  of  the  generals, 
and  all  the  officers,  come  over  to  Demosthenes'  opinion ;  and 
Nicias  himself  was  at  last  forced  to  acquiesce. 

Demosthenes,  after  having  ineffectually  attacked  the  wall 
which  cut  the  contravallation  of  the  besiegers,  confined  him- 
self to  the  attack  of  Epipol3e,from  a  supposition,  that,  should 
he  once  be  master  of  it,  the  wall  would  be  quite  undefended. 
He,  therefore,  took  provisions  for  five  days,  with  workmen, 
implements,  and  every  thing  necessary  for  him  'to  defend  that 
post,  after  he  should  obtain  possession. 

As  it  could  not  be  approached,  in  the  day  time,  undiscov- 
ered, he  marched  thither  in  the  night,  with  all  his  forces,  fol- 
lowed by  F.urymedon  and  Menander  ;  Nicias  staying  behind, 
to  guard  the  camp.  They  went  up  by  the  way  ^f  Euryclus, 
as  before,  unperceived  by  the  sentinels,  attacked  the  first  in- 
tienchment,  and  stormed  it,  after  killing  part  of  those  who 
defended  it.  Demosthenes,  not  satisfied  with  this  advantage, 
to  prevent  the  ardour  of  his  soldiers  from  cooling,  and  to 
delay  the  execution  of  his  design,  marches  forward. 

During  this  interval,  the  forces  of  the  city,  sustained  by 
Gylippus,  marched,  under  arms,  out  of  the  intrenchments. 
Being  seized  with  astonishment,  which  the  darkness  of  the 
night  increased,  they  were  immediately  repulsed,  and  put  to 
flight.  But,  as  the  Athenians  advanced  in  disorder,  to  force 
whatever  might  resist  their  arms,  lest  the  enemy  might  rally 
again,  should  time  be  allowed  them  to  breathe  and  recover 
from  their  surprise,  they  are  stopped  on  a  sudden  by  the 
Boeotians,  who  make  a  vigorous  stand,  and,  marching  against 
the  Athenians  with  their  pikes  presented,  they  repulse  the«m 
with  great  shouts,  and  make  a  dreadful  slaughter. 

This  spread  a  universal  terror  through  the  rest  of  the  army. 
Those  who  fled,  either  force  along  such  as  were  advancing 
to  their  assistance,  or  else,  mistaking  them  for  enemies,  turn 

M3 


136 


THE  HISTOKY 


■I' 


t'i 


their  arms  against  them.  They  were  now  all  mixed  indis- 
criminately; it  being  impossible  to  discover  objects  in  the 
horrors  of  the  nignt ;  which  was  not  so  gloomy  as  entirely  to 
make  objects  imperceptible,  nor  yet  so  light  as  that  one  could 
distinguish  those  which  were  seen. 

The  Athenians  sought  for  one  another  in  vain ;  and,  from 
their  often  asking  the  word,  by  which  only  they  were  able  to 
know  one  another,  a  strange  confusion  of  sounds  was  heard, 
which  occasioned  no  little  disorder;  not  to  mention  that  they, 
by  this  means,  divulged  the  word  to  the  enemy,  and  coufd 
not  learn  theirs ;  because  by  their  being  together,  and  in  a 
body,  they  had  no  occasion  to  repeat  it. 

In  the  mean  time,  those  who  were  pursued  threw  them- 
selves  from  the  top  of  the  rocks ;  and  many  were  dashed  tc 
pieces  by  the  fall :  and  as  most  of  those  who  escaped,  strag. 
gled  from  one  another,  up  and  down  the  fields  and  woods^ 
they  wei-e  cut  to  pieces,  the  next  day,  by  the  enemy's  horse] 
who  pursued  them.  Two  thousand  Athenians  were  slain,  in 
this  engagement;  and  a  great  nun.oer  o.  nrms  were  taken; 
those  who  fled  having  thrown  them  away,  \  at  they  might  be 
the  better  able  to  escape  over  the  precipice    . 

Soon  afterwards,  Gylinuus,  having  made  .ne  tour  of  Sicily, 
brought  a  great  numbcr'ot  troops  with  h'.n,  which  rendered 
the  affairs  of  Athens  s\'ll  nore  desperp.'vC ;  and  deprived  Ni- 
cias  of  all  hopes  of  sp  cess  :  besides,  the  Athenian  army  now 
began  to  diminish  exceedingly,  by  sickness  ;  and  nothing 
seemed  to  remain,  but  their  quilting  an  island,  in  which  they 
had  experienced  every  mortification.  Nicias  no  longer  op- 
posed the  resolution,  und  only  desired  to  have  it  kept  secret 
Orders  were  therefore  given,'as  privately  as  possible,  for  the 
fleet  to  prepare  for  setting  sail,  with  the  utmost  expedition. 

When  all  things  were  ready,  the  moment  they  were  going 
to  sail  y  wholly  unsuspected  by  the  enemy,  who  were  far  from 
surmising  they  would  leave  Sicily  so  soon)  the  moon  was 
suddenly  eclipsed,  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  lost  all  its 
splendour;  which  terrified  Nicias  and  the  whole  army;  who, 
from  ignorance  and  superstition,  were  astonished  at  so  sud- 
den a  change,  the  causes  of  which  they  did  not  know,  and 
Ihcrefore  dreaded  the  consequences. 

They  then  consulted  the  soothsayers  ;  who,  being  equall) 
unacquainted  with  the  reasons  of  this  phenomenon,  only  aug 
mented  their  consternation.  It  was  the  custom,  after  such 
things,  to  suspend  their  enterprise  only  for  three  days.  The 
soothsayers  pronounced,  that  he  must  not  sail  till  three  times 
nire  days  were  past,  ^^ihese  were  Thucydides*  words)  which 


OF  GFxEECE. 


.37 


was  doubtless  a  mysterious  number,  in  the  opinion  of  the 

^^Nicias,  scrupulous  to  a  fault,  and  full  of  a  mistaken  vene- 
-ation  for  these  blind  interpreters  of  the  will  of  the  gods,de. 
clared,  that  he  would  wait  a  whole  revolution  of  the  moon, 
and  not  retuni  till  the  same  day  of  the  next  month  ;  as  if  he 
had  not  seen  the  planet  very  clearly,  the  instant  it  had  enierg- 
cd  from  that  part  which  was  darkened  by  the  interposition 

of  the  earth's  body.  r  i     • 

But  he  was  not  allowed  time  for  this.  The  news  of  the  m- 
tended  departure  of  the  Athenians,  soon  spread  over  the  city; 
a  resolution  was  taken  to  attack  the  besiegers,  both  by  sea 
and  land.  The  Syracusans  began,  the  first  day,  by  attacking 
the  intrenchments,  and  gained  a  slight  advantage.  On  the 
morrow,  they  made  a  second  attack,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
sailed   with  'seventy-six    galleys,  against  eighty-six  of   the 

Athenians.  *   i      • 

Eurymcdon,  who  commanded  the  right  ot  the  Athenian 
fleet,  having  spread  along  the  shore,  to  surround  them,  this 
movement  proved  fatal  to  him.  As  he  was  detached  from  the 
body  of  the  fleet,  the  Syracusans,  after  forcing  the  main  bat- 
tle, which  was  in  the  centre,  attacked  him  ;  drove  him  vigor- 
ously into  the  gulf  called  Dascon,  and  there  defeated  him 
entirely.     In  the  engagement,  Eurymedon  lost  his  life. 

They  afterwards  gave  cliase  to  the  rest  of  the  galleys,  and 
ran  them  against  the  shore.  Gylippus,  who  commanded  the 
land  armv,'seeing  the  Athenian  galleys  were  forced  aground, 
and  not  able  to  return  into  the  stoccado,  landed,  with  part  of 
his  troops,  in  order  to  charge  the  soldiers,  in  case  they  should 
be  forced  to  run  ashore,  and  give  his  friends  the  more  room 
to  tow  such  galleys  as  they  should  have  taken  :  however,  he 
was  repulsed  by  the  Tyrrhenians,  who  were  posted  on  that 
side,  and  obliged,  by  the  Athenians,  who  flew  to  sustain  them, 
to  retire,  with  some  loss,  as  far  as  an  adjacent  moor. 

The  latter  saved  most  of  their  ships,  eighteen  excepted, 
which  were  taken  by  the  Syracusans,  who  cut  to  pieces  their 
crews.  After  this,  resolving  to  burn  the  rest,  they  filled  an 
old  vessel  with  combustible  materials,  and,  having  set  fire  to 
it,  they  drove  it,  by  the  help  of  the  wind,  against  the  Ath^ 
nians ;  who  nevertheless  extinguished  the  fire,  and  drove  off 
that  ship.  Each  side  erected  trophies ;  the  Syracusans,  for 
the  death  of  Eurymedon,  and  the  advantage  they  had  gaineu 
the  day  before;  the  Athenians,  for  having  driven  part  ol  the 
enemy  into  the  moor,  and  put  the  other  part  to  flight. 

But  the  minds  of  the  two  nations  were  very  differently  af- 
fected :  the  Syracusans,  who  had  been  thrown  into  the  ut- 


13S 


THE  HISTORY 


:  I 


hit 


most  consternation  at  the  arrival  of  Demosthenes  with  hi* 
fleet,  seeing  themselves  victorious  in  a  naval  engagement,  re- 
sumed fresh  hopes,  and  assured  themselves  of  a  complete 
victory  over  their  enemies ;  the  Athenians,  on  the  contrary, 
frustrated  in  their  only  resource,  and  overcome  at  sea,  so 
contrary  to  their  expectations,  entirely  lost  courage,  and  had 
no  thoughts  but  of  retiring. 

The  enemy,  to  deprive  them  of  all  resource,  and  pre\  enl 
their  escaping,  shut  the  mouth  of  the  great  harbour,  which  was 
about  five  hundred  paces  wide,  with  galleys,  placed  crosswise, 
and  other  vessels  fixed  with  anchors  and  iron  chains ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  made  the  requisite  preparations  for  a  bat 
tie,  in  case  they  should  have  courage  to  engage  again. 

When  the  Athenians  saw  themselves  thus  hemmed  in,  the 
generals  and  principal  officers  assembled,  in  order  to  delibe- 
rate  on  the  present  state  of  affairs.  They  were  in  absolute 
want  of  provisions,  which  was  owing  to  their  having  forbid- 
den the  people  of  Catana  to  bring  any,  from  the  hopes  they 
entertained  of  their  being  able  to  retire ;  and  they  could  not 
procure  any  from  other  places,  unless  they  were  masters  of 
the  sea.     This  made  them  resolve  to  venture  a  sea  fight. 

With  this  view,  they  were  determined  to  leave  their  old 
camp  and  their  walls;  and  to  intrench  themselves  on  the  shore, 
near  the  ships,  in  the  smallest  compass  possible  :  their  design 
was  to  leave  some  forces  in  that  place,  to  guard  the  baggage 
and  their  sick ;  and  to  fight  with  the  rest  on  board  all  the 
ships  they  should  save.  They  intended  to  retire  into  Catana, 
incase  they  should  be  victorious;  otherwise,  to  set  fire  to 
their  ships,  and  to  march,  by  land,  to  the  nearest  city  belong 
ing  to  their  allies. 

This  resolution  being  taken,  Nicias  immediately  filled  a 
hundred  and  ten  galleys  (the  others  having  lost  their  oars) 
with  the  flower  of  his  infantry,  and  drew  up  the  rest  of  the 
forces,  particularly  the  bowmen,  in  order  of  battle,  on  shore. 
As  the  Athenians  dreaded  very  much  the  beaks  of  the  Syra- 
cusan  galleys,  Nicias  had  provided  harping  irons,  to  grapple 
them,  in  order  to  break  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  tp  come 
immediately  to  close  fight,  as  on  shore. 

But  the  enemy  perceiving  this,  covered  the  prows  and  upper 
part  of  their  galleys  with  leatner,  to  prevent  their  being  so 
easily  laid  hold  of.  The  commanders,  on  both  sides,  had  em- 
ployed all  their  rhetoric  to  animate  their  men  ;  and  none  could 
ever  have  been  prompted  with  stronger  motives :  the  battle 
which  was  going  to  be  fought,  was  to  determine,  not  only 
ihfiir  lives  and  liberties,  but  also  the  fate  of  their  country. 
This  battle  was  very  obstinate  and  bloody.     The  Athenians 


OF  GREECE. 


139 


having  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  port,  easily  took  those 
ships  which  defended  the  entrance ;  but,  when  they  uticmpt- 
rd  to  break  the  chain  of  the  rest,  to  widen  the  passage,  the 
enemy  came  up,  from  all  quarters.  As  nearly  two  hundred 
galleys  came  rushing,  on  each  side,  in  a  narrow  place,  there 
must  necessarily  be  a  great  confusion;  and  the  vessels  could 
not  easily  advance,  or  retire,  or  turn  about  to  renew  the  attack. 
I'he  beaks  of  the  galleys,  for  this  reason,  did  very  little  exe- 
;ution  ;  but  there  were  very  furious  and  frequent  discharges. 
The  Athenians  were  overwhelmed  with  a  shower  of  stones, 
,^'hich  always  did  execution,  from  what  place  soever  they 
*vere  thrown;  whereas,  they  defended  themselves  only  by 
shooting  darts  and  arrows ;  which,  by  the  motion  of  the  ships, 
from  the  agitation  of  the  sea,  did  not  carry  true,  and  by  that 
means  the  greater  part  of  them  did  little  execution.  Ariston, 
the  pilot,  had  given  the  Syracusans  this  counsel. 

These  discharges  being  over,  the  soldiers,  heavily  armed, 
attempted  to  enter  the  enemy's  ships,  in  order  to  fight  hand 
to  hand  ;  and  it  often  happened,  that,  whilst  they  were  climb- 
ing up  one  side,  their  own  ships  were  entered  on  the  other, 
and  two  or  three  ships  were  grappled  to  one ;  which  occa- 
sioned a  great  perplexity  and  confusion.  Besides,  the  noise 
of  the  ships  which  dashed  one  against  another ;  the  different 
cries  of  the  victors  and  the  vanquished ;  prevented  the  orders 
of  the  officers  from  being  heard. 

The  Athenians  wanted  to  force  a  passage,  whatever  might 
be  the  consequence,  to  secure  their  return  into  their  own 
country ;  and  this  the  enemy  employed  their  utmost  efforts  to 
prevent,  in  order  that  they  might  gain  a  more  complete  and 
more  glorious  victory. 

The  two  land  armies,  which  were  drawn  up  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  shore,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  who  were 
there,  ran  to  the  walls,  whilst  the  rest,  kneeling  in  their  tem- 
ples, were  imploring  heaven  to  give  success  to  their  fellow- 
citizens  :  all  these  saw  clearly,  because  of  their  little  distance 
from  the  fleets,  every  thing  that  passed,  and  contemplated  the 
battle  as  from  an  amphitheatre,  but  not  without  great  anxiety 
and  terror. 

Attentive  to,  and  shuddering  at  every  movement,  and  the 
several  changes  which  happened,  they  discovered  the  concern 
they  had  in  the  battle ;  their  fears,  their  hopes,  their  grief, 
their  joy,  by  different  cries  and  different  gestures ;  stretching 
out  their  hands  sometimes  towards  the  combatants,  to  ani- 
mate them ;  at  other  times,  towards  heaven,  to  implore  the 
*uccour  and  protection  of  the  gods. 

At  last,  the  Athenian  fleet,  after  sustaining  a  long  battle, 


110 


THE  JlliSTOKVr 


and  making  a  vigorous  resistance,  was  put  to  flight,  and  drove 
against  the  shore.  The  Syracusans,  who  were  spectators  of 
this  victory,  conveyed  the  news,  to  the  whole  city,  by  a  uni- 
versal shout.  The  victors,  now  masters  of  the  sea,  and  sail 
ing  with  afavourable  wind  towards  Syracuse, erected  a  trophy 
whilst  the  Athenians,  who  were  quite  dejected  and  overpovV 
cred,  did  not  so  much  as  request  that  their  dead  soldiers 
might  be  dehvered  to  them,  in  order  to  pay  the  last  sad  duty 
to  their  remains.  ' 

There  now  remained  but  two  methods  for  them  to  choose 
either  to  attempt  the  passage  a  second  time,  for  which  they 
had  ships  and  soldiers  sufficient,  or  to  abandon  their  fleet  to 
the  enemy,  and  retire  by  land.  Demosthenes  proposed  the 
.ormer;  but  the  sailors,  in  the  deepest  affliction,  refused  to 
)bey,  fully  persuaded  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to 
sustain  a  second  engagement.  The  second  method  was,  there- 
Fore,  resolved  upon ;  and  accordingly  they  prepared  to  set  out 
m  Uie  night,  to  conceal  the  marchof  their  army  from  the  enemy 

But  Hermocrates,  who  suspected  their  design,  was  very 
sensible  that  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  not  to  suffer  so 
great  a  body  of  forces  to  escape,  since  they  otherwise  mie-ht 
iortily  themselves  in  some  corner  of  the  island,  and  renew 
the  war.  The  Syracusans  were,  at  that  time,  i»  the  midst  of 
their  festivity  and  rejoicings ;  solemnizing  the  festival  of 
Hercules ;  and  meditating  nothing  but  how  they  mii>ht  divert 
themselves,  after  the  toils  they  had  sustained  in  fight. 

lo  desire  the  Syracusans  to  take  up  arms  again,  in  order 
to  pursue  the  enemy,  and  to  attempt  to  draw  them  from  their 
diversions,  either  by  force  or  persuasion,  would  have  been 
useless ;  lor  which  reason,  another  expedient  was  employed 
Hermocrates  sent  out  a  few  horsemen,  who  were  to  pass  as 
J^uJ"'-^^^  Athenians,  and  ordered  them  to  cry  aloud, 
lell  Niciasnot  to  retire  till  day-light,  for  the  Syracusans 
he  in  ambush  for  him,  and  have  seized  on  their  passes." 

1  his  false  advice  stopped  Nicias  at  once ;  and  he  did  not 
even  set  out  the  next  day,  in  order  that  the  soldiers  miirht 
have  more  time  to  prepare  for  their  departure,  and  carry 
off  whatever  might  be  necessary  for  their  subsistence,  and 
abandon  the  rest.  >  •*  '^ 

The  enemy  had  time  enough  for  seizing  the  avenues.    The 

f^t  fiT?^'"^''  T^^''  ^^V^  occupied  the  most  difficult  passes; 
toitified  those  places  where  the  rivers  were  fordable ;  broke 
down  the  bridges,  and  spread  detachments  of  horse  up  and 
down  he  plain  ;  so  that  there  was  not  one  place  which  the 
Athenians  could  pass,  without  fighting. 
They  set  out  upon  their  march  the  third  day  after  the  bat 


I 


OF  GREECE. 


141 


tie,  with  a  design  to  retire  to  Catana.  The  whole  army  was 
in  an  inexpressible  consternation,  to  see  so  great  numbers  of 
men,  either  dead  or  dying ;  some  of  whom  were  left  exposed 
to  wild  beasts,  and  the  rest  to  the  cruelty  of  the  enemy.  Those 
who  were  sick  and  wounded,  conjured  them,  with  tears,  to 
take  them  along  with  the  army ;  and  held  by  their  clothes 
when  they  were  going :  or  else,  crawling  after  them,  followed 
them  as  far  as  their  strength  would  permit :  and,  when  this 
failed,  had  recourse  to  tears,  sighs,  imprecations;  and  send- 
ing up  towards  heaven  plaintive  and  dying  groans,  they  call- 
ed upon  the  gods,  as  well  as  men,  to  avenge  their  cruelty, 
whilst  every  place  echoed  with  lamentations. 

The  whole  army  was  in  a  deplorable  condition.  All  the 
Athenians  were  seized  with  the  deepest  melancholy.  They 
were  inwardly  tortured  with  rage  and  anguish,  when  they 
represented  to  themselves  the  greatness  from  which  they  were 
fallen ;  the  extreme  misery  to  which  they  were  reduced,  and 
the  still  greater  evils  from  which  they  foresaw  it  would  be 
impossible  for  them  to  escape.  They  could  not  bear  the  com- 
parison, for  ever  present  in  their  thoughts,  of  the  triumphant 
state  in  which  they  had  left  Athens,  in  the  midst  of  the  good 
wishes  and  acclamations  of  the  people,  with  the  ignominy  of 
their  retreat,  aggravated  by  the  cries  and  imprecations  of 
their  relations  and  fellow-citizens. 

But  the  most  melancholy  part  of  the  spectacle,  and  that 
which  most  deserved  compassion,  was  Nicias ;  dejected  and 
worn  out  by  a  tedious  illness,  deprived  of  the  most  necessary 
stores,  at  a  time  when  his  age  and  infirmities  required  them 
most;  pierced,  not  only  with  his  private  grief,  but  that  of 
others :  all  which  preyed  upon  his  heart. 

However,  this  great  man,  superior  to  all  his  evils,  thought 
of  nothing  but  how  he  might  best  comfort  his  soldiers,  and 
revive  their  courage.  He  ran  up  and  down,  in  all  places, 
crying  aloud,  that  their  situation  was  not  yet  desperate,  and 
that  other  armies  had  escaped  from  greater  dangers ;  that 
they  ought  not  to  accuse  themselves,  or  grieve  too  immode- 
rately for  misfortunes  which  they  had  not  occasioned:  tha* 
if  they  had  offended  some  god,  his  vengeance  must  be  satiated 
by  this  time;  that  fortune,  after  having  so  long  favoured  the 
;nemy,  would,  at  last,  be  tired  of  persecuting  them ;  trtat  their 
bravery  and  numbers  njade  them  still  formidable :  (being  still 
aearly  forty  thousand :)  that  no  city  in  Sicily  would  be  able  to 
withstand  them,  nor  prevent  their  settling  wherever  they 
might  think  proper ;  that  they  had  no  more  to  do  than  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  and  march  in  good  order :  that,  by  a  p;u- 
dent  and  courageous  retreat,  which  was  now  become  thei" 


il 


142 


THE  HISTORY 


only  resource,  they  would  not  only  save  themselves,  but  also 
their  country,  and  enable  it  to  recover  its  former  grandeur. 

The  army  now  marched  in  two  bodies,  both  drawn  up  ir. 
the  form  of  a  phalanx ;  the  first  being  commanded  by  Nicias, 
and  the  second  by  Demosthenes,  with  the  baggage  in  the 
centre.  Having  come  to  the  river  Anapis,  they  forced  their 
passage,  and  afterwards  were  charged  by  all  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  as  well  as  krchers,  who  discharged  perpetually  upon 
them.  They  were  annoyed  in  this  manner  during  several 
days*  march  ;  every  one  of  the  passes  being  guarded,  and  the 
Athenians  being  obliged  to  dispute  every  inch  of  their  way. 

The  enemy  did  not  wish  to  hazard  a  battle  against  an  army 
which  despair  alone  might  render  invincible ;  and  the  instant 
the  Athenians  presented  the  Syracusans  battle,  the  latter  re- 
tired ;  but  whenever  the  former  proceeded  in  their  march, 
they  advanced,  and  charged  them  in  their  retreat. 

Demosthenes  and  Nicias,  seeing  the  miserable  condition  to 
which  the  troops  were  reduced,  being  in  extreme  want  of  pro 
visions,  and  great  numbers  of  them  wounded,  judged  it  ad 
visable  to  retire  towards  the  sea,  by  a  quite  contrary  way  to 
that  in  which  they  then  marched;  and  to  make  directly  for 
Camarina  and  Gela,  instead  of  proceeding  to  Catana,  as  they 
first  intended. 

.  They  set  out  in  the  night,  after  lighting  a  great  number 
of  fires.  The  retreat  was  made  in  great  confusion  and  dis- 
order, as  generally  happens,  to  great  armies,  in  the  gloomy 
horrors  of  the  night,  especially  when  the  enemy  is  not  far  off. 
However,  the  vanguard,  commanded  by  Nicias,  went  forward, 
in  good  order;  but  above  half  the  rear-guard,  with  Demos- 
thenes at  their  head,  separated  from  the  main  body,  and  lost 
their  way. 

On  the  next  day,  the  Syracusans,  who,  on  the  report  of  their 
retreat,  had  marched  with  the  utmost  diligence,  overtook  him, 
about  noon ;  and  having  surrounded  him  with  their  horse, 
drove  him  into  a  narrow  place  inclosed  with  a  wall,  where 
nis  soldiers  fought  like  lions. 

Perceiving,  at  the  close  of  the  day,  that  they  were  oppress- 
ed  with  fatigue  and  covered  with  wounds,  the  conquering 
Syracusans  gave  the  islanders  leave  to  retire,  which  some  of 
Ihem  accepted;  and  they  afterwards  spared  the  lives  of  the 
rest,  who  surrendered  at  discretion,  with  Demosthenes ;  after 
having  stipulated,  that  they  should  not  be  put  to  death,  nor 
Bcntencf  d  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  About  six  thousand 
soldiers  surrendered  on  these  conditions. 

Nicias  a^-tived,  the  same  evening,  at  the  river  Erineus  ;  and, 
passing  b  *»ncampcd  on  a  mountain,  where  the  enemy  came 


OF  (iREECE. 


143 


I 


up  with  him  the  next  day,  and  summoned  him  to  surrender 
at  discretion,  as  Demosthenes  had  done.  Nicias  could  not 
persuade  himself,  at  first,  that  what  they  told  him  concern- 
ing Demoslher  es  was  true ;  and  therefore  desired  leave  to 
send  some  hoi  se  for  information.  Upon  their  returning  with 
the  news  that  Demosthenes  had  really  surrendered  in  that 
manner,  Nicias  offered  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  on 
conditioa  that  they  would  permit  him  to  leave  the  country 
with  his  forces,  and  to  give  as  many  Athenians  for  hostages, 
as  they  should  be  obliged  to  pay  talents.  But  the  enemy  re- 
jected this  proposal,  with  disdain  and  insolence  ;  and  renew- 
ed the  attack. 

Nicias,  though  in  absolute  want  of  all  things,  however, 
sustained  the  charge  the  whole  night;  and  marched  towards 
the  river  Asinarus.  When  they  had  reached  the  banks,  the 
Syracusans,  advancing  up  to  them,  threw  most  of  them  into 
the  stream,  the  rest  having  already  plunged  voluntarily  into 
it,  to  quench  their  thirst.  Here,  the  greatest  and  most  bloody 
havoc  was  made,  the  poor  wretches  being  butchered,  without 
the  least  pity,  as  they  were  drinking. 

Nicias,  finding  all  lost,  and  unable  to  bear  this  dismal 
spectacle,  surrendered,  upon  condition  that  Gylippus  should 
discontinue  the  fight,  and  spare  the  rest  of  his  army.  A  great 
number  were  killed,  and  more  taken  prisoners,  so  that  all' 
Sicily  was  filled  with  them.  The  Athenians  seemed  to  have 
been  displeased  with  their  general,  for  surrendering,  in  this 
manner,  at  discretion ;  and,  for  this  reason,  his  name  was 
omitted  in  a  public  monument,  on  which  was  engraved  the 
names  of  those  commanders  who  had  lost  their  lives  in  fight- 
ing for  their  country. 

The  victors,  adorned,  with  the  arms  taken  from  the  prison- 
v.'s,  the  finest  and  largest  trees  they  could  find  on  the  banks 
of  the  river;  of  which,  they  made  a  kind  of  trophies;  when, 
crowning  themselves  with  chaplets  of  flowers, dressingtheir 
horses  in  the  richest  caparisons,  and  cropping  those  of  theii 
•^nemies,  they  entered,  triumphantly,  into  Syracuse,  after 
having  happHy  terminated  the  mos<:  considerable  war  in 
which  they  had  ever  been  engaged  v  ith  the  Greeks ;  and 
won,  by  their  strength  and  valour,  a  most  signal  and  com- 
plete victory. 

I'he  next  day,  a  council  was  held,  to  deliberate  on  what  was 
to  be  done  with  the  prisoners.  Diodes,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  greatest  authority  among  the  people,  proposed,  that  all 
the  Athenians  who  were  born  of  free  parents,  and  all  such 
Sicdiansas  had  joined  with  them,  should  be  imprisoned,  and 
only  two  measures  of  flour  and  one  of  water  c-iven  them  daily i 


144  THE  HISTORY 

\hat  the  slaves  and  all  the  allies  should  be  publicly  sold;  and 
the  two  Athenian  generals  should  be  first  scourged  with  rods, 
and  afterwards  put  to  deatn. 

This  last  article  was  exceedingly  disliked,  by  all  wise  and 
compassionate  Syracusans.  Hcrmocrates,  who  was  very  fa- 
mous for  his  probity  and  justice,  attempted  to  make  some  re- 
monstrances to  the  people  ;  but  they  would  not  hear  him ; 
and  the  shouts  which  echoed  on  all  sides,  prevented  him  from 
continuing  his  speech. 

At  that  instant,  an  ancient  man,  venerable  for  his  great  age 
and  gravity,  who,  in  this  war,  had  lost  two  sons,  the  only  heirs 
to  his  name  and  estate,  made  his  servants  carry  him  to  the 
tribunal  for  hai-angues,  and,  the  instant  he  appeared,  a  pro- 
found silence  was  made.     "  Vou  here  behold,"  says  he,  "an 
unfortunate  father,  who  has  felt  more  than  any  other  Syracu- 
san,  the  fatal  effects  of  this  war,  by  the  death  of  two  sons, 
who  formed  all  the  consolation,  and  were  the  only  supports 
of  my  old  age.     I  cannot,  indeed,  forbear  admiring  their  cou- 
rage and  felicity,  in  sacrificing,  to  their  country*s  welfare,  a 
life,  of  which  they  would  one  day  have  been  deprived  by  the 
common  course  of  nature  :  but  I  cannot  but  be  strongly  affect 
*  ed  by  the  cruel  wound  which  their  death  has  made  in  my 
heart;  nor  forbear  hating  and  detesting  the  Athenians,  tht 
authors  of  this  unhappy  war,  as  the  murderers  of  my  chil 
Oven ;  but,  however,  I  cannot  conceal  one  circnmstance,  which 
is,  that  I  am  less  sensible  of  my  private  affliction  than  of  the 
honour  of  my  country ;  and  I  see  it  exposed  to  eternal  infamy, 
by  the  barbarous  advice  which  is  now  given  you.     The  Athe- 
nians, indeed,  merit  the  worst  treatment,  and  every  kind  of 
punishment  that  can  be  inflicted,  for  so  unjustly  declaring 
war  against  us  ;  but,  have  not  the  gods,  the  just  avengers  of 
crimes,  punished  them,  and  sufficiently  revenged  us  ?  When 
iheir  general  laid  down  his  arms  and  surrendered,  (Vu\  he  not 
do  this  in  hopes  of  having  their  lives  spared ;  and  if  we  put 
them  to  death,  will  it  be  possible  for  us  to  avoid  the  just  re- 
proach of  our  having  violated  the  laws  ot  nations,  and  dis- 
honoured our  victory,  by  an  unheard-of  cruelty  ?  Mow  win 
you  suffer  your  glory  to  be  thiis  sullied,  in   the   fare  of  the 
whole  world;  and  have  it  said,  that  a  nation  who  first  dedi- 
cated a  temple  in  their  city  to  Clemency,  had  not  found  any 
in  yours  ?  Surely  victories  and  triumphs  do  not  give  immor- 
tal glory  to  a  city;  but  the  exercising  of  mercy  towards  a 
vanquished  enemy;  the  using  of  moderation  in  the  greatest 
prosperity,  and  fearing  to  offend  the  gods  by  a  haughty  ana 
insolent  pride,  will  ever  insure  it. 
-**You  doubtless  have  not  forget,  that  this  Nicias,  whose 


OF  GKECCE. 


115 


fate  you  are  going  to  pronounce,  was  the  very  man  who  plead- 
ed your  cause  in  the  assembly  of  the  Athenians ;  and  employ- 
ed all  his  credit,  and  the  whole  power  of  his  eloquence,  to 
dissuade  his  country  from  embarking  in  this  war  :  should  you, 
therefore,  pronounce  sentence  of  death  on  this  worthy  gene- 
ral, would  it  be  a  just  reward  for  the  zeal  he  showed  for  your 
interest  ?  With  regard  to  myself,  death  would  be  less  grievous 
to  me,  than  the  sight  of  so  horrid  an  injustice,  committed  by 
my  countrymen  and  fellow-citizens." 

The  people  seemed  moved  with  compassion,  at  this  speech. 
When  this  venerable  old  man  first  ascended,  they  expected  to 
hear  him  cry  aloud,  for  vengeance,  on  those  who  had  brought 
all  his  calamities  upon  him,  instead  of  suing  for  their  pardon 
But  the  enemies  of  the  Athenians  having  expatiated,  wiili 
vehemence,  on  the  unparalleled  cruelties  which  their  republic 
had  exercised  on  several  cities  belonging  to  their  enemies, 
and  even  to  their  ancient  allies ;  the  inveteracy  which  the 
commanders  had  shown  against  Syracuse,  and  the  evils  they 
would  have  made  it  suffer  had  they  been  victorious ;  the  af- 
flictions and  groans  of  infinite  numbers  of  Syracusans,  who 
bewailed  the  death  of  their  children  and  near  relations,  whose 
manes  could  be  appeased  no  other  way  than  by  the  blood  of 
their  murderei-s; — these  representations  prevailed,  and  the 
people  returned  to  their  sanguinary  resolution,  and  followed 
Diodes'  advice,  in  every  respect.  Gylippus  used  his  utmost 
endeavours,  but  in  vain,  to  have  Nicias  and  Demosthenes 
given  up  to  him  (especially  as  he  had  taken  them)  in  order 
that  he  might  carry  them  to  Lacedaemon ;  but  his  demand 
was  rejected  with  a  haughty  scorn,  and  the  two  generals  were 
put  to  death. 

All  wise  and  compassionate  men  could  not  forbear  shedding 
tears  at  the  tragical  fate  of  two  such  illustrious  personages ; 
and  particularly  for  Nicias,  who,  of  all  men  of  his  time,  seem- 
ed least  to  merit  so  ignominious  and  untimely  an  end.  When 
people  recollected  the  speeches  and  remonstrances  he  had 
made  to  prevent  the  war ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  when  they 
considered  how  high  a  regard  he  had  always  retained  for 
things  relating  to  religion,  the  greater  part  of  them  were 
tempted  to  exclaim  against  Providence,  in  seeing  that  a  man, 
who  had  ever  shown  the  highest  reverence  for  the  gods,  and 
had  always  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  for  their  honour 
and  worship,  should  be  so  ill  rewarded  by  them,  and  meet 
with  no  better  fate  than  the  most  abandoned  wretches. 

The  prisoners  were  shut  up  in  the  prisons  of  Syracuse , 
where,  crowded  one  upon  the  other,  they  suffered  incredible 
torment,  for  eight  months.  Here,  they  were  for  ever  exposed 


146 


THE  HISTOKY 


to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather ;  scorched,  in  the  day 'time 
by  the  burning-  rays  of  the  sun,  or  frozen  in  the  night  by  th« 
cold  of  autumn  ;  Npoisoned  by  the  stench  of  their  own  excre 
ment,  by  the  carcasses  of  those  who  died  of  their  wounds  and 
of  sickness,  and  worn  out  by  hunger  and  thirst;  for  the  dail) 
allowance  to  each  was  but  a  small  measure  of  water,  and  twi 
of  meal. 

Those  who  were  taken  out  of  this  place  two  months  after 
wards,  in  order  to  be  sold  as  slaves, many  of  whom  were  citi- 
zens, who  had  concealed  their  condition,  found  a  less  rigorous 
fate.  Their  wisdom,  their  patience,  and  a  certain  air  of  prob- 
ity and  modesty,  Mere  of  great  advantage  to  them ;  for  they 
were  soon  restored  to  their  liberty,  or  met  with  the  kindest 
and  most  generous  treatment  from  their  masters.  Several  ot 
them  even  owed  the  good  usage  they  met  with  to  Eurypides 
the  finest  scenes  of  whose  tragedies  they  repeated  to  the  Si- 
cilians, who  were  extremely  fond  of  them  ;  so  that  when  they 
returned  to  their  own  country,  they  went  and  saluted  that 
poet  as  their  deliverer ;  and  informed  him  of  the  admirable 
effects  wrought  in  their  favour  by  his  verses. 

The  news  of  the  defeat  being  carried  to  Athens,  the  citizens 
would  not,  at  first,  believe  it ;  and  were  so  far  from  giving 
credit  to  the  report,  that  they  sentenced  that  man  to  death 
who  first  published  the  tidings :  but,  when  it  was  confirmed, 
all  the  Athenians  were  seized  with  the  utmost  consternation,* 
and,  as  if  themselves  had  not  decreed  the  war,  they  vented 
their  rage  and  resentment  against  the  orators  who  had  pro 
moted  the  enterprise,  as  well  as  against  the  soothsayers,  who 
by  their  supposed  prodigies,  had  flattered  them  with  the 
hopes  of  success. 

They  had  never  been  reduced  to  so  deplorable  a  condition 
as  now,  having  neither  horse  nor  foot ;  money,  galleys,  noi 
mariners.  T'hey  were  in  the  deepest  despair,  expecting  every 
moment  that  the  enemy,  elated  with  so  great  a  victory,  and 
strengthened  by  the  revolt  of  the  allies,  would  come  and  in 
vade  Atlwins,  both  by  sea  and  land,  with  all  the  forces  of 
Peloponnesus.  Cicero  had  reason  to  observe,  speaking  of 
the  !)attles  in  the  harbour  of  Syracuse,  that  it  was  there  the 
troops  of  Athens,  as  well  as  their  galleys,  were  ruined  and 
sunk ;  and  that,  in  this  harbour,  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
Athenians  were  miserably  shipwrecked. 

The  Athenians,  however,  did  not  suffer  themselves  to  be 
wholly  dejected,  but  resumed  courage.  They  now  resolved 
to  raise  money,  on  all  sides ;  and  to  import  timber  for  build- 
ing ships,  in  order  to  awe  the  allies,  and  particularly  the  in- 
habitants of  the  island  of  Eubcea.     They  retrenched  all  su- 


OF  GREECE. 


147 


perfluous  expenses ;  and  established  a  new  council  of  ancient 
men,  who  were  to  weip;h  and  examine  all  affairs,  before  they 
should  be  proposed  to  the  people.  In  fine,  they  omitted  noth- 
ing which  might  be  of  service  in  the  present  conjuncture ; 
the  alarm  in  which  they  were,  and  their  common  danger 
obliging  every  individual  to  be  attentive  to  the  necessities  of 
the  state,  and  sedulous  to  all  advice  that  might  promote  its 
interests. 

Such,  was  the  event  of  the  siege  of  Syracuse,  the  failure  o! 
which  destroyed  the  power  of  those  that  had  undertaken  it. 
We  have  hitherto  seen  Athens  rising  in  arts  and  arms,  giving 
lessons  in  politics  and  humanity,  philosophy  and  war,  to  all 
the  nations  around,  and  beginning  to  fix  an  empire,  which,  if 
once  established,  no  neighbouring  power  could  overthrow. 
But  their  ambition  grew  faster  than  their  abilities,  and  their 
views  extending  beyond  their  capacity  to  execute,  they  fell, 
at  once,  from  that  height,  to  which,  for  ages,  they  had  been 
assiduously  aspiring. 

We  are  now,  therefore,  to  be  presented  with  a  different 
picture  :  we  are  no  longer  to  view  this  little  state  panting  for 
conquests  over  other  nations,  but  timorously  defending  itself 
at  home :  we  are  no  longer  to  view  Athens  taking  the  lead  in 
the  councils,  and  conducting  the  confederate  armies  of  Greece : 
they  now  become,  in  a  measure,  annihilated ;  they  fade  from 
the  eye  of  the  historian,  and  other  nations,  whose  names  have 
hitherto  been  scarcely  mentioned,  emerge  from  obscurity. 
The  rashness  of  this  enterprise  was  severely  punished,  in  the 
loss  of  their  best  generals,  fleets,  and  armies :  all  now  was 
destroyed  or  left  at  the  mercy  of  those  whom  they  ha.d  so  un- 
seasonably undertaken  to  subdue. 

Their  allies  began  now  to  think  of  throwing  off  their  yoke : 
4nd  even  those  who  had  stood  neuter,  took  this  occasion  to 
declare  against  them.  But  the  Lacedaemonians,  being  more 
particularly  elevated,  resolved  to  prosecute  the  war  with 
vigour;  so  the  winter  was  spent  in  preparations  on  both 
sides.  The  Athenians,  in  their  present  distress,  scarcely 
knew  where  to  -turn ;  many  of  their  allied  cities  revolted  :  and 
it  was  with  the  utmost  difiiculty,that,by  placing  their  forces 
and  fleets  at  Samos,  they  reduced  such  states  as  had  aban- 
doned them  to  their  former  obedience,  and  kept  the  rest  in 
their  duty  ;  thus,  still  struggling  with  a  part  of  their  former 
spirit,  they  kept  themselves  in  a  condition  to  make  head 
against  their  enemies,  over  whom  they  had  obtained  several 
advantages. 

Alcibiades,  who  was  well  informed  of  all  that  passed  among 
the  Athenians,  sent  secretly  to  their  principal  men  at  Samos, 

N  2 


148 


THE  HIiJTOKy 


OF  GREECE. 


119 


lo  sound  their  sentiments ;  and  to  let  them  know  that  he  wa% 
not  averse  to  returning  to  Athens,  provided  the  administra- 
tion of  the  republic  were  put  into  the  hands  of  the  great  and 
powerful,  and  not  left  to  the  populace,  wno  had  expelled  him 
Some  of  the  principal  officers  went  from  Samos,  with  a  de- 
sign to  concert  with  him  the  proper  measures  for  the  success 
of  that  undertaking.  He  promised  to  procure  the  Athenians 
not  only  the  favour  of  the  Persians,  with  whom  he  had  taken 
refuge,  but  of  the  king  himself,  upon  condition  they  would 
abolish  the  democracy  or  popular  government;  because  the 
king  would  place  more  confidence  in  the  engagements  of  the 
nobility,  than  upon  those  of  the  inconstant  and  capriciouf 
multitude. 

The  chief  man  who  opposed  his  return,  was  Phrynicus,  one 
of  the  generals ;  who,  to  compass  his  designs,  sent  word  to 
Astyocus,  the  Lacedaemonian  general,  that  Alcibiades  was 
treating  with  Tissaphernes,  to  bring  him  over  to  the  Athe- 
nian interest.  He  offered,  farther,  to  betray  to  him  the  whole 
army  and  navy  of  the  Athenians.  But  his  treasonable  prac- 
tices being  all  detected,  by  the  good  understanding  betwixt 
Alcibiades  and  Astyocus,  it  was  laid  aside,  and  he  was  after 
wards  stabbed  in  the  market-place. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Athenians  went  eagerly  forward,  to 
complete  that  change  of  government  which  had  been  propos 
ed  to  them  by  Alcibiades  :  the  democracy  began  to  be  abol- 
ished in  several  cities  of  Athens ;  and,  soon  afterwards,  the 
scheme  was  carried  boldly  forward  by  Lysander,  who  was 
chiefly  concerned  in  this  transaction.  To  give  a  new  form  to 
this  government,  he  caused  ten  commissaries,  with  absolute 
power,  lo  be  appointed,  who  were,  liowever,  at  a  certain  fixed 
lime,  to  give  the  people  an  account  of  what  they  had  done. 

At  the  expiration  of  that  term,  the  general  assembly  wa» 
summoned,  wherein  their  first  resolution  was,  that  every  one 
should  be  admitted  to  make  sucli  jiroposals  as  he  thought  fit 
without  being  liable  to  any  accusation  for  infringing  the  law, 
or  consofjueniial  penalty.  It  was  afterwards  decreed,  that  a 
new  council  should  be  formed,  with  full  power  to  administer 
ihe  public  affairs,  and  to  elect  new  magistrates.  For  this 
purpose,  five  presidents  were  established,  who  nominated  one 
hundred  persons,  including  themselves.  Each  of  these  chose 
and  associated  three  more  at  his  own  pleasure,  which  mad^ 
in  all  four  hundred,  in  whom  an  absolute  power  was  lodged. 

But,  to  amuse  the  people,  and  to  console  them  with  a  sha- 
dow of  popular  government,  whilst  they  instituted  a  real  oil 
garchy,it  was  said,  that  the  four  hundred  should  call  a  coun- 
cil of  five  thousand  citizens,  when  they  should  judge  it  necei' 


sary,  to  assist  them.  I'he  council  and  assemblies  of  the  people 
were  held  as  usual,  nothing  was  done,  however,  but  by  order 
of  the  four  hundred.  The  people  of  Athens  were  deprived, 
in  this  manner,  of  their  liberty,  which  they  had  enjoyed  al 
most  a  hundred  years,  after  having  abolished  the  tyranny  ot 
.he  Pisistratides. 

This  decree  being  passed  without  opposition,  after  the 
separation  of  the  assembly,  the  four  hundred,  armed  with 
daggers,  and  attended  by  a  hundred  and  twenty  young  men 
whom  they  made  use  of  when  any  execution  required  it,  en- 
tered the  senate,  and  compelled  the  senators  to  retire,  after 
having  paid  them  the  arrears  due  upon  their  appointments 
They  elected  new  magistrates,  out  of  their  own  body,  observ- 
ing the  usual  ceremony  upon  such  occasions.  They  did  not 
think  proper  to  recal  those  who  were  banished,  lest  they 
should  authorise  the  return  of  Alcibiades,  whose  uncontrol- 
lable spirit  they  apprehended,  and  who  would  soon  make 
himself  master  of  the  people.  Abusing  their  power  in  a  ty- 
rannical manner,  they  put  some  to  death,  others  they  banish- 
ed, and  confiscated  their  estates  with  impunity.  All  who 
ventured  to  oppose  this  change,  or  even  to  complain  of  it, 
were  l)utchered,  upon  false  pretexts;  and  those  were  intimi- 
dated who  demanded  justice  of  the  murderers.  The  four 
hundred  soon  after  their  establishment,  -sent  ten  deputies  to 
Samos,  for  the  army's  concurrence  to  their  establishment. 

The  army,  in  the  mean  time,  which  was  at  Samos,  pro- 
tested against  those  proceedings  in  the  city  ;  and,  at  the  per- 
suasion of  Thrasybulus,  recalled  Alcibiades,  and  created  him 
general,  with  full  power  to  sail  directly  to  the  Pyraeus,  and 
crush  this  new  tyranny.  Alcibiades,  however,  would  not  give 
way  to  this  rash  opinion,  but  went  first  to  show  himself  to 
Tissaphernes,  and  acquaint  him  that  it  was  now  in  his  power 
to  treat  him  as  a  friend  or  an  enemy.  By  this  means,  he 
awed  the  Athenians  with  Tissaphernes,  and  Tissaphernes 
with  the  Athenians.  When,  afterwards,  the  four  hundred 
sent  to  Samos,  to  vindicate  their  proceedings,  the  army  was 
for  putting  the  messengers  to  death,  and  persisted  in  the  de- 
sign upon  the  Pyrseus  ;  but  Alcibiades,  by  opposing  it,  mani- 
festly saved  the  commonwealth. 

In  the  mean  while,  the  innovation  in  Athens  had  occasion 
ed  such  factions  and  tumults,  that  the  four  hundred  were 
more  intent  upon  providing  for  their  safety,  than  prosecuting 
the  war.  In  order  to  which,  they  fortified  that  part  of  the 
Pyraeus  which  commands  the  mouth  of  the  haven ;  and  re- 
solved, in  case  of  extremity,  rather  to  let  in  the  Lacedaemo 
cvuxir^  than  expose  their  persons  to  the  fury  of  thei*   fellow- 


i 


, 


■  ! 


150 


THE  lllSTOKY 


citizens.  The  Sparians  took  occasion,  from  these  distur- 
bances, to  hover  about,  with  forty-two  galleys,  under  the 
conduct  of  Hegesandrides;  and  the  Athenians  with  thirty-six 
under  1  iniochares,  were  forced  to  engage  them,  but  lost  part 
o\  their  fleet,  and  the  rest  were  dispersed.  To  add  to  which, 
all  Euboea,  except  Oreus,  revolted  to  the  Peloponnesians. 

T  his  failure  of  success,  served  to  give  the  finishing  blow  to 
the  power  of  the  four  hundred.  The  Athenians,  without  de- 
lay, deposed  them,  as  the  authors  of  all  the  troubles  and 
divisions  under  which  they  groaned.  Alcibiades  was  recalled, 
by  unanimous  consent,  and  earnestly  solicited  to  make  all 
possible  haste  to  the  assistance  of  the  city.  But,  judging  that 
il  he  returned  immediately  to  Athens,  he  should  owe  his  re- 
cal  to  the  compassion  and  favour  of  the  people,  he  resolved 
to  render  his  return  glorious  and  triumphant,  and  to  deserve 
It  by  sonie  considerable  exploit. 

For  this  purpose,  leaving  Samos  with  a  small  number  oi 
ships,  he  cruised  about  the  island  of  Cos  and  Cnidos;  and 
having  learnt  that  Mindarus,  the  Spartan  admiral,  had  sailed 
to  the  Hellespont  with  his  whole  fleet,  and  that  the  Atheni 
ans  were  in  pursuit  of  him,  he  steered  that  way,  with  the  ut- 
most dihgence,  to  support  them,  and  arrived  happily,  with  hia 
eighteen  vessels,  at  the  time  the  fleets  were  engaged  near 
Abydos,  in  a  battle  which  lasted  till  night,  without  any  ad- 
vantage on  cither  side. 

His  arrival  at  first  gave  new  courage  to  the  Spartans,  who 
believed  him  still  their  friend ;  and  dispirited  the  Athenians, 
liut  Alcibiades,  hanging  out  the  Athenian  flag  in  the  admiral's 
galley,  tell  upon  them,  and  put  them  to  flight;  and,  animated 
by  his  success,  sunk  their  vessels,  and  made  a  great  slaughter 
ol  their  soldiers,  who  had  thrown  themselves  into  the  sea,  to 
save  themselves  by  swimming.  The  Athenians,  having  taken 
thirty  of  their  galleys,  and  retaken  those  they  had  lost,  erect 
ed  a  trophy.  ' 

Alcibiades,  after  the  victory,  went  to  visit  Tissaphernes, 
who  was  so  far  from  receiving  him  as  he  expected,  that  he 
immediately  caused  him  to  be  seized,  and  sent  awav  prisoner 
to  Sardis ;  telling  him  he  had  orders  from  the  king  to  make 
war  against  the  Athenians;  but  the  truth  is,  he  was  afraid  of 
being  accused,  to  his  master,  by  the  Peloponnesians,  and 
thought,  by  this  act  of  injustice,  to  purge  himself  from  all 
lormer  imputations. 

Alcibiades,  after  thirty  days,  made  his  escape  to  Clazo- 
menes ;  and  soon  afterwards  bore  down  upon  the  Peloponne- 
sian  fleet,  which  rode  at  anchor  before  the  port  of  Cyzicus. 
With  twenty  of  his  best  ships,  he  broke  through  the  enemy, 


OF  GKEKCE. 


151 


pursued  those  who  abandoned  their  vessels  and  fled  to  land, 
and  made  a  great  slaughter.  The  Athenians  took  all  the 
enemies'  ships,  made  themselves  masters  of  Cyzicus,  while 
Mingimia,  the  Lac^idaemonian  general,  was  found  among  the 
number  of  the  slain. 

Alcibiades  well  knew  how  to  make  use  of  the  victory  he 
had  gained ;  and,  at  the  head  of  his  conquering  forces,  took 
several  cities  which  had  revolted  from  the  Athenians.  Chal 
cedon,  Salymbria,  and  Byzantium,  were  among  the  number 
Thus,  flushed  with  conquest,  he  seemed  to  desire  nothing  so 
ardently  as  to  be  once  more  seen  by  his  countrymen,  as  hia 
presence  would  be  a  triumph  to  his  friends,  and  an  insult  to 
his  enemies. 

Accordingly,  being  recalled,  he  set  sail  for  Athens.  Besides 
the  ships  covered  with  bucklers  and  spoils,  of  all  sorts,  in  the 
manner  of  trophies,  a  great  number  of  vessels  were  towed 
after  him,  by  way  of  triumph :  he  displayed  also  the  ensigns 
and  ornaments  of  those  he  had  burned,  which  were  more  than 
the  others ;  the  whole  amounting  to  about  two  hundred  ships. 

It  is  said,  that,  reflecting  on  what  had  been  done  against 
him,  on  approaching  the  port,  he  was  struck  with  some  ter- 
ror, and  was  afraid  to  quit  his  vessel,  till  he  saw,  from  the 
deck,  a  great  number  of  his  friends  and  relations,  who  had 
come  to  the  shore,  to  receive  him,  and  earnestly  entreated 
him  to  land.  As  soon  as  he  had  landed,  the  multitude,  who 
came  out  to  meet  him,  fixed  their  eyes  upon  him ;  thronged 
about  him ;  saluted  him  with  loud  acclamations,  and  crowned 
him  with  garlands.  He  received  their  congratulations  with 
great  satisfaction :  he  desired  to  be  discharged  from  his  for- 
mer condemnation,  and  obtained,  from  the  priests,  an  abso- 
lution from  all  their  former  denunciations. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  these  triumphs,  the  real  power  of 
Athens  was  now  no  more:  the  strength  of  the  state  was  gone : 
and  even  the  passion  for  liberty  was  lost,  in  the  common  de- 
generacy of  the  times.  Many  of  the  meaner  sort  of  the  peo- 
ple, passionately  desired  that  Alcibiades  would  take  the  sove- 
reignty upon  him;  they  even  desired  him  to  set  himself 
above  the  reach  of  envy,  by  securing  all  power  in  his  own 
person :  the  great,  however,  were  not  so  sanguine  in  their 
gratitude  ;  they  were  content  with  appointing  him  generalis 
simo  of  all  their  forces :  they  granted  him  whatever  he  de- 
manded, and  gave  him  for  colleagues  the  generals  most  agree 
able  to  him. 

He  set  sail,  accordingly,  with  a  hundred  ships,  and  steered 
for  the  island  of  Andros  which  had  revolted  ;  where,  having 
defeated  the  inhabitants,  he  went  from  thence  to  Samos,  in- 


152 


THE  HISTORY 


tending  to  make  thai  the  seat  of  the  war.  In  the  mean  time, 
the  Lacedaemonians,  justly  alarmed  at  his  success,  made  choice 
of  a  general,  supposed  to  be  capable  of  making  head  against 
him  :  for  this  reason,  they  fixed  upon  Lysander,  who,  though 
born  of  the  highest  family,  had  been  bred  up  to  hardships, 
and  paid  an  entire  respect  to  the  discipline  and  manners  of 
his  country. 

He  was  brave  and  aspiring,  and,  like  his  countrymen,  sacri 
ficed  all  sorts  of  pleasures  to  his  ambition.  He  had  an  even- 
ness and  sedateness  of  temper,  which  made  all  conditions  of 
life  sit  easy  upon  him,  but  withal  was  extremely  insinuating, 
crafty,  and  de&igning,  and  made  his  interest  the  only  measure 
of  truth  and  falsehood.  This  deceitful  temper  was  observed  to 
run  through  the  whole  course  of  his  life  ;  upon  which  occa- 
sion, it  was  said,  that  he  cheated  children  with  foul  play,  and 
men  with  perjury :  and  it  was  a  maxim  of  his  own,  that,  when 
the  lion  fails,  we  must  make  use  of  the  fox. 

Lysander,  having  brought  his  arnry  to  Ephesus,  gave  or- 
ders for  assembling  ships  of  burthen,  from  all  parts,  and  erect- 
ed an  arsenal  for  building  galleys  :  he  made  the  ports  free  for 
merchants ;  gave  public  places  to  artificers ;  put  all  arts  in 
motion ;  and,  by  these  means,  filled  the  city  with  riches,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  magnificence  which  it  afterwards 
obtained. 

Whilst  he  was  making  these  dispositions,  he  received  ad- 
vice, that  Cyrus,  the  Persian  prince,  had  arrived  at  Sardis : 
he  therefore  set  out  from  Ephesus,  to  make  him  a  visit,  and 
to  complain  of  Tissaphernes,  whose  duplicity  and  treacher) 
had  been  fatal  to  their  common  cause.  Cyrus,  who  had  a 
personal  enmity  to  that  general,  came  into  the  views  of  Ly- 
sander, agreed  to  increase  the  seamen's  pay,  and  to  give  him 
all  the  assistance  in  his  power. 

The  largess  filled  the  whole  fleet  with  ardour  and  alacrity^ 
and  almost  unmanned  the  enemies*  galleys :  the  greater  part 
of  the  mariners  deserting  to  that  party  where  the  pay  was 
best.  The  Athenians,  in  despair,  upon  receiving  this  news^ 
endeavoured  to  conciliate  Cyrus,  by  the  interposition  of  Tis- 
saphernes; but  he  would  not  hearken  to  them,  notwithstand- 
mg  the  satrap  represented  that  it  was  not  for  the  king's  in- 
terest to  aggrandise  the  Lacedaemonians,  but  to  balance  the 
power  of  one  side  with  that  of  the  other,  in  order  to  perpetu- 
ate the  war,  and  to  ruin  both,  by  their  own  divisions. 

Alcibiades,  on  the  other  hand,  having  occasion  to  leave  the 
fleet,  in  order  to  raise  the  supplies,  gave  the  command  of  :l 
to  Antiochus,  with  express  command  not  to  engage  or  attack 
rhe  enemy,  in  his  absence.    Antiochus,  however,  was  willing 


OF  GREECE. 


153 


to  Ao  some  action  that  might  procure  him  favour,  without  a 
oartner  in  the  glory :  he  was  so  far,  therefore,  from  observing 
ihose  orders,  that  he  presently  sailed  away  for  Ephesus;  and, 
It  the  very  mouth  of  the  harbour,  used  every  art  to  provoke 
I  he  enemy  to  engage. 

Lysander  at  first  manned  out  a  few  ships,  to  repel  his  in 
suits ;  but,  as  the  Athenian  ships  advanced  to  support  Anti 
ochus,  other  galleys,  belonging  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  also 
'.ame  on,  till  both  fleets  arrived,  by  little  and  little,  and  the 
engagement  became  general.  Lysander  at  length  was  victo- 
rious :  Antiochus  was  slain,  and  fifteen  galleys  were  taken. 
It  was  in  vain,  that  Alcibiades  soon  afterwards  came  up  to 
the  relief  cf  his  friends  ;  it  was  in  vain,  that  he  offered  to  re- 
new the  combat ;  Lysander,  content  with  the  victory  he  had 
gained,  was  unwilling  again  to  trust  to  fortune. 

The  fickle  multitude  of  Athens,  again,  therefore,  began  to 
accuse  Alcibiades  of  insufficiency.  He  who  was,  just  before, 
respected  even  to  adoration,  was  now  discarded,  upon  a 
groundless  suspicion  that  he  bad  not  done  his  duty.  But  it 
was  the  glory  he  had  obtained  by  his  past  services,  that  now- 
ruined  him ;  for  his  continual  success  had  begot  in  the  people 
such  an  opinion  of  him,  that  they  thought  it  impossible  for 
him  to  fail  in  any  thing  he  undertook ;  and,  from  thence  his 
enemies  took  occasion  to  question  his  integrity,  and  to  im- 
pute to  him  both  his  own,  and  the  miscarriages  of  others. 

Callicratides  was  appointed  to  succeed  Lysander,  whose 
vcar  had  expired.  Alike  severe  to  himself  and  others,  inac- 
cessible to  flattery  and  sloth,  the  declared  enemy  of  luxury, 
he  retained  the  modesty,  temperance,  and  austerity,  of  the 
ancient  Spartans  ;  virtues  that  began  to  distinguish  him  par- 
ticularly, as  they  were  not  too  common  in  his  time.  His  prob- 
ity and  justice  were  proofs  against  all  things ;  his  simplicity 
\nd  integrity  abhorred  all  falsehood  and  fraud;  to  which, 
were  joined  a  truly  Spartan  nobleness  and  grandeur  of  soul. 

The  first  attempt  of  the  admiral,  was  against  Methyma,  in 
Lesbos,  which  he  took  by  storm.  He  then  threatened  Conon, 
who  was  appointed  general  of  the  Athenians,  that  he  would 
make  him  leave  debauching  the  sea;  and  accordingly  soon  af- 
terwards pursued  him  into  the  port  of  Mytilene,  with  a  hun- 
dred and  seventy  sail,  took  thirty  of  his  ships,  and  besieged 
him  in  the  town,  from  which  he  cut  off*  all  provisions. 

He  soon  afterwards  took  ten  ships  more,  out  of  twelve, 
which  were  coming  to  his  relief.  Then,  hearing  that  the 
Athenians  had  fitted  out  their  whole  strength,  consisting  of  a 
hundred  and  fifty  sail,  he  left  fifty  of  his  ships,  under  Etoni- 
cus,  to  carry  on  the  siege  of  Mytilene ;  and,  with  a  hundred 


154 


THE  HISTORY 


and  twp.nty  more,  met  the  Athenians  at  ArginusaE,over  agamst 
Lesbos. 

His  pilot  advised  him  to  retreat :  as  the  enemy  was  supe- 
rior in  number.  He  told  him,  that  Sparta  would  not  be  the 
worse  inhabited,  though  he  were  slain.  The  fight  was  long 
and  obstinate,  until  at  last  the  ship  of  Callicratides,  charging 
through  the  enemy,  was  sunk,  and  the  rest  fled.  The  Pelo- 
ponncsians  lost  about  seventy  sail,  and  the  Athenians  twenty- 
five,  with  most  of  their  men. 

The  Athenian  admirals,  who  had  the  joint  command  of  the 
fleet,  instead  of  being  rewarded  for  so  sig^ial  a  victory,  were 
made  a  barbarous  instance  of  the  power  and  ingratitude  of 
their  fellow-citizens.  Upon  a  relation  of  the  fight  before  the 
senate,  it  was  alleged,  they  had  suffered  their  men  who  were 
shipwrecked  to  be  lost,  when  they  might  have  saved  them ! 
Upon  which',  they  were  clapped  in  irons,  in  order  to  answer 
It  to  the  people. 

They  ujgcd,  in  their  defence,  that  they  were  pursuing  the 
enemy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  gave  orders  about  taking  up 
the  men,  to  those  whose  business  it  more  peculiarly  was ;  par- 
ticularly to  Theramenes,  who  was  now  their  accuser :  but  yet 
that  their  orders  could  not  be  executed,  by  reason  of  a  vio- 
lent storm.  This  seemed  so  reasonable  and  satisfactory,  that 
several  stood  up,  and  offered  to  bail  them ;  but,  in  another 
assembly,  the  popular  incendiaries  demanded  justice,  and  so 
awed  the  judges,  that  Socrates  was  the  only  man  who  had 
courage  enough  to  declare  he  would  do  nothing  contrary  to 
law ;  and  accordingly  refused  to  act. 

After  a  long  debate,  eight  of  the  ten  were  condemned,  and 
six  of  them  were  put  to  death ;  among  whom,  was  Pericles, 
son  of  the  great  Pericles.  He  declared,  that  they  had  failed 
in  no  part  of  their  duty,  as  they  had  given  orders  that  the 
dead  bodies  should  be  taken  up  :  that  if  any  one  were  guilty, 
it  was  he,  who,  being  charged  with  these  orders,  had  neglect- 
ed to  put  them  in  execution  ;  but  that  he  accused  nobody,  and 
that  the  tempest  which  came  on  unexpectedly,  at  the  very  in- 
stant, was  an  unanswerable  apology,  and  entirely  discharged 
the  accused  from  all  guilt. 

He  demanded,  that  a  whole  day  should  be  allowed  them,  to 
make  their  defence,  a  favour  not  denied  to  the  most  criminal, 
and  that  they  should  be  tried  separately.  He  represented,  that 
they  were  not  in  the  least  obliged  to  precipitate  a  sentence, 
wherein  the  lives  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  citizens  were 
concerned  :  that  it  was,  in  some  measure,  attacking  the  gods, 
to  make  men  responsible  for  the  winds  and  weather :  that  they 
conic*  not,  without  the  most  flagrant  ingratitude  and  injn?  •  .t 


OF  GREECE. 


155 


put  the  conquerors  to  death,  to  whom  they  ought  to  decree 
crowns  and  honours,  or  give  up  the  defenders  of  their  coun- 
try to  the  rage  of  those  who  envied  them :  that  if  they  did 
so,  their  unjust  judgment  would  be  followed  by  a  sudden,  but 
vain  repentance,  which  would  leave  behind  it  the  sharpest  re- 
morse, and  cover  them  with  eternal  shame  and  infamy. 

Among  the  number,  was  also  Diomedon,  a  person  equally 
eminent  for  his  valour  and  his  probity.  As  he  was  carried 
to  execution,  he  demanded  to  be  heard.  "  Athenians,"  said 
he,  "  I  wish  the  sentence  you  have  passed  upon  us,  may  not 
prove  the  misfortune  of  the  republic :  but  I  have  one  favour 
to  ask  of  you,  in  behalf  of  my  colleagues  and  myself,  which 
is,  to  acquit  us,  before  the  gods,  of  the  vows  we  made  to  them 
for  you  and  ourselves,  as  we  are  not  in  a  condition  to  dis- 
charge them :  for  it  is  to  their  protection,  invoked  before  the 
battle,  we  acknowledge  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  victory 
gained  by  us  over  the  enemy." 

There  was  not  a  good  citizen,  that  did  not  melt  into  tears 
at  this  discourse,  so  full  of  goodness  and  religion;  and  ad- 
mire, with  surprise,  the  moderation  of  a  person,  who,  seeing 
himself  unjustly  condemned,  did  not,  however,  vent  the  least 
resentment,  or  even  complaint  against  his  judges,  but  was 
solely  intent  (in  favour  of  an  ungrateful  country  which  had 
doomed  them  to  perish)  upon  what  he  owed  to  the  gods,  in 
common  with  them,  for  the  victory  they  had  lately  obtained. 

This  complication  of  injustice  and  ingratitude,  seemed  to 
give  the  finishing  blow  to  the  affairs  of  the  Athenians.  They 
struggled,  for  a  while,  after  their  defeat  at  Syracuse ;  but 
from  hence  they  were  entirely  sunk,  though  seemingly  in  the 
arms  of  victory. 

The  enemy,  after  their  last  defeat,  had  once  more  recourse 
to  Lysander,  who  had  so  often  led  them  to  conquest :  on  him 
Ihey  placed  their  chief  confidence,  and  ardently  solicited  his 
return.  The  Lacedaemonians,  to  gratify  their  allies,  and  yet 
to  observe  their  laws,  which  forbade  that  honour  being  con- 
ferred twice  on  the  same  person,  sent  him,  with  an  inferior 
title,  but  with  the  power  of  admiral. 

Thus  appointed,  Lysander  sailed  towards  the  Hellespont, 
laid  siege  to  Lampsacus,  carried  the  place  by  storm,  and 
abandoned  it  to  the  mercy  of  the  soldiers.  The  Athenians, 
who  followed  him  close,  upon  the  news  of  his  success,  steered 
forward  towards  Olestus ;  and,  from  thence  sailing  along  the 
coast,  halted,  over  against  the  enemy,  at  -£gos  Potamos,  a 
place  fatal  to  the  Athenians. 

The  Hellespont,  in  that  place,  is  not  ubove  two  thousand 
paces  broad.     The  two  armies  seeing  thrmscives  so  near  eac^ 


r56 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


157 


other,  expected  to  rest  only  that  day,  and  wei*e  in  hopes  of 
coming  to  a  battle,  on  the  next.  But  Lysander  had  another 
desig^i  in  view  :  he  commanded  the  seamen  and  pilots  to  go 
on  uoard  their  galleys,  as  if  they  were,  in  reality,  to  fight  the 
next  morning  at  break  of  day ;  to  hold  themselves  in  readi- 
ness, and  to  wait  his  orders,  in  profound  silence ;  and  the  land 
army,  to  draw  up  in  order  of  battle  upon  the  coast,  and  to 
wait  the  day  without  any  noise.  In  the  morning,  as  soon  as 
♦he  sun  had  risen,  the  Athenians  began  to  row  towards  them, 
with  their  whole  fleet,  in  one  line,  and  to  bid  them  defiance. 
I-vsander,  though  his  ships  were  ranged  in  order  of  battle, 
with  their  heads  towards  the  enemy,  lay  still,  without  making 
any  movement. 

In  the  evening,  when  the  Athenians  withdrew,  he  did  not 
suffer  his  soldiers  to  go  ashore,  till  two  or  three  galleys,  which 
he  had  sent  out  to  observe  them,  had  returned,  with  advice 
that  they  had  seen  the  enemy  land.  The  next  day  passed  in 
the  same  manner ;  as  did  the  third  and  fourth.  Such  a  con- 
duct, which  argued  reserve  and  apprehension,  extremely  aug^ 
mented  the  security  and  boldness  of  the  Athenians,  and  in- 
spired them  with  a  high  contempt  for  an  army,  which  fear 
prevented  from  showing  themselves,  or  attempting  any'thing. 

Whilst  this  passed,  Alcibiades,  who  was  near  the  fleet, 
rode  up  to  the  Athenian  generals ;  to  whom,  he  represented, 
that  they  kept  upon  a  very  disadvantageous  coast,  where 
there  were  neither  ports  nor  cities  in  the  neighbourhood  ; 
that. they  were  obliged  to  bring  their  provisions  from  Sestos, 
with  great  danger  and  difficulty;  and  that  they  were  very 
much  in  the  wrong,  to  suffer  the  soldiers  and  mariners  of  the 
fleet,  as  soon  as  they  were  ashore,  to  straggle  and  disperse 
themselves  at  their  pleasure,  whilst  the  enemy's  fleet  faced 
them  in  view,  accustomed  to  execute  the  orders  of  their  gene- 
ral with  instant  obedience,  and  upon  the  slightest  signal. 

He  offered,  also,  to  attack  the  enemy,  by  land,  with  a  strong 
body  of  Thracian  troops,  and  to  force  them  to  a  battle.  The 
generals,  especially  Tydeus  and  Menander,  jealous  of  their 
command,  did  not  content  themselves  with  refusing  his  offers, 
from  the  opinion,  that,  if  the  event  proved  unfortunate,  the 
whole  blame  would  fall  upon  them,  and  if  favourable,  that 
Alcibiades  would  engross  the  honour  of  it ;  but  rejected  also, 
with  insult,  his  wise  and  salutary  counsel ;  as  if  a  man  in  dis- 
grace lost  his  sense  and  abilities  with  the  favour  of  the  com- 
monwealth.    Alcibiades  withdrew. 

The  fifth  day,  the  Athenians  presented  themselves  ag^in, 
and  ofl*ered  bim  battle ;  retiring,  in  the  evening,  according  to 
ruStom,  with  more  insulting  airs  than  before.     Lysander,  as 


i 


usual,  del  ached  some  galleys,  to  observe  them,  with  orders  to 
return  with  the  utmost  diligence,  when  they  saw  the  Atheni- 
ans landed,  and  to  put  a  brown  buckler  at  each  ship's  head, 
as  soon  as  they  reached  the  middle  of  the  channel.  He  him- 
self, in  the  mean  time,  ran  through  the  whole  line,  in  his  gal- 
ley, exhorting  the  pilots  and  officers  to  hold  the  seamen  and 
soldiers  in  readiness,  to  row  and  fight  on  the  first  signal. 

As  soon  as  the  bucklers  were  put  up  in  the  ships*  heads, 
and  the  admiral's  galley  had  given  the  signal  by  the  sound  of 
trumpet,  the  whole  fleet  set  forward,  in  good  order.  The  land 
army,  at  the  same  time,  made  all  possible  haste  to  the  top  of 
the  promontory,  to  see  the  battle.  The  strait  that  separates  the 
two  continents,  in  this  place,  is  about  fifteen  stadia,  or  three 
quarters  of  a  league  in  breadth ;  which  space  was  presently 
cleared,  through  the  activity  and  diligence  of  the  rowers. 

Conon,  the  Athenian  general,  was  the  first  who  perceived, 
from  short ,  the  enemy's  fleet  advance  in  good  order,  to  attack 
him ;  upon  which,  he  immediately  cried  out  for  the  troops  to 
embark.  In  thi  /Alight  of  sorrow  and  perplexity,  some  he 
called  to  by  their  names,  some  he  conjured,  and  others  he 
forced  to  go  on  board  their  galleys :  but  all  his  endeavours 
and  emotions  were  ineff*ectual,  the  soldiers  being  dispersed 
on  all  sides.  They  had  no  sooner  gone  on  shore,  than  some 
ran  to  the  sutlers ;  some  went  to  walk  in  the  country ;  some 
to  sleep  in  their  tents,  and  others  to  dress  their  suppers.  This 
proceeded  from  the  want  of  vigilance  and  experience  in  their 
generals;  who,  not  suspecting  the  least  danger,  indulged  them- 
selves in  taking  their  repose,  and  gave  their  soldiers  the  same 
liberty. 

The  enemy  had  already  fallen  on  with  loud  cries,  and  a 
great  noise  of  their  oars,  when  Conon,  disengaging  himself 
with  nine  galleys,  of  which  number  was  the  sacred  ship,  stood 
away  for  Cyprus,  where  he  took  refuge  with  Evagoras.  The 
Peloponnesians,  falling  upon  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  immediate 
ly  took  the  galleys  which  were  empty,  and  disabled  and  de- 
stroyed such  as  began  to  fill  with  men.  The  soldiers,  who 
ran  without  order  or  arms  to  their  relief,  were  either  killed 
in  the  endeavour  to  get  on  board,  or  flying  on  shore,  were  cut 
to  pieces  by  the  enemy,  who  landed  in  pursuit  of  them. 

Lysander  took  three  thousand  prisoners,  with  all  the  gene- 
rals, and  the  whole  fleet.  After  having  plundered  the  camp, 
and  fastened  the  enemies'  galleys  to  the  sterns  of  his  own,  he 
returned  to  Lampsacus,  amidst  the  sounds  of  flutes  and  songs 
of  triumph.  It  was  his  glory  to  have  achieved  one  of  the 
greatest  military  exploits  recorded  in  history,  with  little  or 
no  loss;  and  to  have  terminated  a  war,  in  the  small  space  of 


158 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


159 


an  hour,  which  had  already  lasted  twenty-seven  years,  ai.d 
which,  perhaps,  without  him,  had  continued  much  lonj^er. 
Ly Sander  immediately  sent  despatches,  with  this  agreeable 
news,  to  Sparta. 

The  three  thousand  prisoners  taken  in  this  battle,  having 
been  condemned  to  die,  Lysander  caused  to  be  brought  forth 
Philocles,  one  of  the  Athenian  generals,  who  had  caused  aU 
the  prisoners  taken  in  two  galleys,  the  one  of  Andros,  the 
other  of  Corinth,  to  be  thrown  from  the  top  of  a  precipice  j 
and  had  formerly  persuaded  the  people  of  Athens  to  make  a 
decree  for  cutting  off  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  of  all  the 
prisoners  of  war,  in  order  to  disable  them  from  handling  the 
pike ;  and  that  they  might  be  fit  only  to  serve  at  the  oar ; — 
and  asked  him  what  sentence  he  would  pass  upon  himself,  for 
having  induced  his  city  to  make  that  cruel  decree.  Philocles^ 
without  departing  from  his  haughtiness  in  the  least,  notwith- 
standing the  extreme  danger  he  was  in,  made  answer;  "Ac- 
ruse  not  people  of  crimes,  who  have  no  judges;  but,  as  you 
are  victors,  use  your  right,  and  do,  by  us,  as  we  had  done  by 
you,  if  we  had  conquered."  At  the  same  instant,  he  went  into 
a  bath ;  put  on  afterwards  a  magnificent  robe,  and  marched 
foremost  to  the  execution.  All  the  prisoners  were  put  to  the 
sword,  except  Adamantus,  who  had  opposed  the  decree. 

When  the  news  of  the  entire  defeat  of  the  army,  came  to 
Athens,  by  a  ship  which  arrived,  in  the  night,  at  the  Pyraeus, 
the  city  was  in  consternation.  They  naturally  expected  a 
siege ;  and,  in  fact,  Lysander  was  preparing  to  besiege  them. 
Nothing  was  heard,  but  cries  of  sorrow  and  despair.  They 
imagined  the  enemy  already  at  their  gates ;  they  represented 
to  themselves  the  miseries  of  a  long  siege,  a  cruel  famine, 
the  ruin  and  burning  of  their  city,  the  insolence  of  a  proud 
victor,  and  the  shameful  slavery  they  were  upon  the  point  of 
experiencing,  more  afflicting  and  insupportable  to  them,  than 
the  most  severe  punishments,  and  death  itself.  The  next  day 
I  he  assembly  was  summoned,  wherein  it  was  resolved  to  shut 
up  all  the  ports,  one  only  excepted,  to  repair  the  breaches  in 
Ihe  walls,  and  mount  guard,  to  prepare  against  the  siege. 

Their  fears  were  soon  confirmed.  Lysander,  finding  num- 
bers of  Athenians  dispersed  in  different  cities,  commanded 
them  all,  on  the  pahi  of  death,  to  take  shelter  in  Athens 
This,  he  did,  with  a  design  so  to  crowd  the  city,  as  to  be  able 
soon  to  reduce  it  by  famine.  In  effect,  he  soon  afterwards 
ur.'ived  at  the  port  of  Athens,  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  sail. 
While  Agis  and  Pausanias,  the  two  kings  of  Sparta,  advauccd| 
with  their  army,  to  besiege  it  by  land. 

The  wretched  Athenians,  thus  hemmed  in  on  every  side. 


I 


without  provisions,  ships,  or  hopes  of  relief,  prepared  to  meet 
the  last  extremity,  with  patience ;  in  this  manner,  without 
speaking  the  least  word  of  a  capitulation,  and  dying  in  the 
streets  by  hundreds,  they  obstinately  continued  on  the  defen- 
sive ;  but,  at  length,  their  corn  and  provisions  being  entirely 
consumed,  they  found  themselves  compelled  to  send  deputies 
to  Agis,  with  offers  of  abandoning  all  their  possessions,  their 
city  and  port,  only,  excepted. 

The  haughty  Lacedaemonian  referred  the  deputies  to  the 
state  itself,  and  when  they  had  made  known  their  commis- 
sions to  the  ephori,  they  were  ordered  to  retire,  and  to  come 
with  other  proposals,  if  they  expected  peace. 

At  length,  Theramenes,  an  Athenian,  undertook  to  manage 
the  treaty  with  Lysander ;  and,  after  three  months  of  close 
conference,  he  received  full  power  to  treat  at  Lacedaemon. 
When  he,  attended  by  nine  others,  arrived  before  the  ephori, 
it  was  there  strongly  urged,  by  some  of  the  confederates,  that 
Athens  should  be  totally  destroyed,  without  hearkening  to 
any  further  proposals. 

But  the  Lacedaemonians  told  them,  they  would  not  destroy 
a  city,  which  had  so  eminently  rescued  Greece  in  the  most 
critical  juncture :  that  the  long  walls  and  the  Pyracus  should 
be  demolished :  that  they  should  deliver  up  all  their  ships 
but  twelve:  that  they  should  restore  all  their  exiles:  that 
they  should  make  a  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  with  the 
Lacedaemonians,  and  serve  them  in  all  their  expeditions,  both 
by  sea  and  land. 

Theramenes,  having  returned  with  the  articles  to  Athens, 
was  asked  why  he  acted  so  contrary  to  the  intentions  of  The- 
mistocles;  and  gave  those  walls  into  the  hands  of  the  Lacedx- 
monians,  which  he  had  built  in  defiance  of  them  ?  "  I  have 
my  eye,"  says  he,  **  upon  Themistocles'  design ;  he  raised 
these  walls  for  the  preservation  of  the  city,  and  I,  for  the  very 
same  reason,  would  have  them  destroyed.  If  walls,  only,  se- 
cure a  city,  Sparta,  which  has  none,  is  in  a  very  ill  condition.** 

The  Athenians,  at  another  time,  would  not  have  thought 
this  a  satisfactory  answer;  but,  being  reduced  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity, it  did  not  admit  of  a  long  debate,  whether  or  not 
they  should  accept  the  treaty.  At  last,  Lysander  coming  up  to 
the  Pyraeus,  demolished  the  walls,  with  great  solemnity,  and 
all  the  insulting  triumphs  of  music.  Thus,  a  final  period 
was  put  to  this  unhappy  war,  which  had  continued  seven  and 
twenty  years;  in  which  heaps  of  treasure  and  a  deluge  of 
blood  were  exhausted. 

0  2 


160 


THE  HISTORY 


»  CHAPTER  XI. 

From   the  Demolition  of  the  Athenian  Powery  to  the  Death  of 

Socrates. 

The  victory  of  Lysander  was  so  terrible  a  shock  to  Athens, 
that  it  survived  only  to  be  sensible  of  the  loss  of  its  own 
power :  however,  the  conquerors  were  so  generous,  as  not  to 
extinguish  the  name.  They  said  they  would  not  be  guilty  of 
putting  out  one  of  the  eyes  of  Greece ;  but  they  imposed 
some  farther  marks  of  conquest  on  it :  they  obliged  the 
people  to  demolish  the  democracy,  and  submit  to  the  govern- 
ment of  thirty  men,  who  were  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

Though  the  Greeks  were  in  the  practice  of  giving  that 
name  to  men  of  virtuous  characters,  these  men,  who  were 
the  creatures  of  Lysander,  in  every  respect  deserved  the  most 
opprobrious  denomination  :  instead  of  compiling  and  publish- 
ing a  more  perfect  body  of  laws,  which  was  the  pretence  or 
their  being  chosen,  they  began  to  exert  their  power  of  life 
and  death :  and  though  they  constituted  senators  and  other 
magistrates,  they  made  no  farther  use  of  them,  than  to  con- 
firm their  authority,  and  see  their  comniands  executed. 

However,  they  at  first  acted  cautiously,  and  condemned  only 
the  most  detested  and  scandalous  part  of  the  citizens,  such 
as  lived  by  evidencing  and  informing:  but  this  was  only  to 
give  a  colour  to  their  proceedings :  their  design  was  to  make 
themselves  absolute ;  and,  knowing  that  was  not  to  be  done, 
without  a  foreign  power,  their  next  step  was  to  desire  that  a 
guard  might  be  sent  them  from  Sparta,  until  such  time  as 
^hey  could  clear  the  city  of  all  disaffected  persons,  and 
thoroughly  settle  the  government. 

Lysander  accordingly  procured  them  a  guard,  under  th% 
command  of  Callibius,  who,  by  bribes  and  artifices  was  brought 
over  to  their  designs ;  and  then,  they  acted  without  control, 
filling  the  city  with  the  blood  of  those,  who,  on  account  of 
their  riches,  interest,  or  good  qualities,  were  most  likely  to 
make  effectual  opposition. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  their  cruelty,  was  in  procuring  the 
death  of  Alcibiades,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  dominions 
of  Persia.  This  unfortunate  general,  still  mindful  of  the  debt 
he  owed  his  country,  employed  his  utmost  attention  in  giving 
it  the  earliest  notices  of  what  could  affect  its  freedom  or  its 
safety.  Cyrus,  the  prince  of  Persia,  having  resolved  to  de- 
throne his  brother  Artaxerxes,  entered  into  a  ti  eaty  with  the 
Lacedaemonians,  to  assist  him  in  his  designs 


OF  GKEECE. 


161 


Alcibiades  did  all  that  was  in  his  power,  to  obstruct  the 
scheme :  but  the  Lacedaemonian  partisans  at  Athens,  that  is 
to  say,  the  thirty  tyrants,  apprehended  the  intrigues  of  so 
superior  a  genius  as  his ;  and  represented,  to  their  masters, 
that  they  were  inevitably  ruined,  if  they  did  not  find  means 
to  rid  themselves  of  Alcibiades. 

The  Lacedaemonians,  thereupon,  wrote  to  Pharnabazus,  and 
with  an  abject  meanness,  not  to  be  excused,  and  which  showed 
how  much  Sparta  had  degenerated  from  her  ancient  manners, 
made  pressing  solicitations  to  him,  to  deliver  them,  at  any 
cate,  from  so  formidable  an  enemy.  This  satrap  complied 
mih  their  wishes.  Alcibiades  was  then  in  a  small  town  of 
Phrygia,  where  he  lived  with  his  concubine  Timandra.  Those 
who  were  sent  to  kill  him,  not  daring  to  enter  his  house,  con 
tented  themselves  with  surrounding  and  setting  it  on  fire. 

Alcibiades  having  quitted  it  through  the  flames,  sword-in 
hand,  the  barbarians  were  afraid  to  come  to  blows  with  him. 
but,  flying  and  retreating  as  he  advanced,  they  poured  their 
darts  and  arrows  upon  him  from  a  distance,  and  he  fell  dead 
upon  the  spot.  Timandra  took  up  his  body,  and,  having 
adorned  and  covered  it  with  her  finest  robes,  she  made  as 
magnificent  a  funeral  for  it,  as  her  present  condition  would 
admit. 

Such,  was  the  end  of  Alcibiades,  whose  great  virtues  were 
stifled  and  suppressed  by  still  greater  vices.  It  is  not  easy 
to  say,  whether  his  good  or  his  bad  qualities  were  more  per- 
nicious to  his  country ;  for,  with  the  one  he  deceived,  and 
with  the  other  he  oppressed  it.  In  him,  distinguished  valour 
was  united  with  nobility  of  blood.  His  person  was  beautiful, 
and  finely  made :  he  was  eloquent,  of  great  ability  in  business, 
insinuating,  and  formed  for  charming  all  mankind.  He  loved 
glory,  but  without  interfering  with  his  inclination  for  plea- 
sure ;  nor  was  he  so  fond  of  pleasure,  as  to  neglect  his  glory 
he  knew  how  to  submit  to,  or  oppose,  the  allurements  of  luxu 
ry,  according  to  the  situation  of  his  affairs.  Never  was  there 
ductility  of  genius,  equal  to  his  :  he  metamorphosed  himself, 
with  incredible  facility,  into  the  most  contrary  forms ;  and 
supported  them  all  with  as  much  ease  and  grace,  as  if  each 
nad  been  natural  to  him. 

In  this  manner,  the  thirty  proceeded ;  and,  fearing  to  be 
opposed  by  the  multitude,  they  invested  three  thpusand  citi- 
zens with  some  part  of  their  power,  and,  by  their  assistance, 
preserved  the  rest.  But,  thoroughly  emboldened  by  such  an 
accession  to  their  party,  they  agreed  to  single  out  every  one 
his  man,  to  put  him  to  death,  and  seize  his  estate  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  garrison.     Theramenes,  one  of  their 


162 


THE  HISTORIC 


OF  GREECE. 


163 


1 


number,  was  the  only  man  that  was  struck  with  horror  at 
their  proceedings :  wherefore,  Critias,  the  principal  author, 
thought  it  necessary  to  remove  him,  and  accused  him  to  the 
senate  of  endeavouring  to  subvert  the  state. 

Sentence  of  death  was  therefore  passed  upon  him,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  drink  the  juice  of  hemlock,  the  usual  mode  of 
execution  then  in  Athens.  Socrates,  whose  disciple  he  had 
been,  was  the  only  person  of  the  senate,  who  ventured  to  ap« 
pear  in  his  defence :  he  made  an  attempt  to  rescue  him  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  officer  of  justice ;  and,  after  his  execu- 
tion, went  about,  as  it  were,  in  defiance  of  the  thirty,  exhort- 
ing and  animating  the  senators  and  citizens  against  them. 

The  tyrants,  delivered  from  a  colleague,  whose  presence 
alone  was  a  continual  reproach  to  them,  no  longer  observed 
any  measures.  Nothing  passed  throughout  the  city,  but  im 
prisonments  and  murders.  Every  body  trembled  for  them- 
selves or  their  friends.  The  general  desolation  had  no  reme* 
dy,  nor  was  there  any  hope  of  regaining  lost  liberty. 

All  the  citizens,  of  any  consideration,  in  Athens,  and  wh« 
retained  a  love  of  freedom,  quitted  a  place,  reduced  to  so  hard 
and  shameful  a  slavery,  and  sougJit  elsewhere  an  asylum  and 
retreat,  where  they  might  live  in  ridfety.  The  Lacedaemonians 
had  the  inhumanity  to  endeavour  to  deprive  those  unhappy 
fugitives  of  this  last  resource.  They  published  an  edict  to 
prohibit  the  cities  of  Greece  from  giving  them  refuge :  de- 
creed, that  they  should  be  delivered  up  to  the  thirty  tyrants; 
and  condemned  all  such  as  should  contravene  the  execution 
of  this  edict,  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  talents.  Only  two  cities  re- 
jected, with  disdain,  so  unjust  an  ordinance — Megara  and 
Thebes  ;  the  latter  of  which  made  a  decree,  to  punish  all  per 
sons,  whatsoever,  that  should  see  an  Athenian  attacked  by 
his  enemies,  without  doing  his  utmost  to  assist  him.  Lysias 
an  orator  of  Syracuse,  who  had  been  banished  by  the  thirty^ 
raised  five  hundred  soldiers,  at  his  own  expense,  and  sent 
them  to  the  aid  of  the  common  country  of  eloquence. 

Thrasybulus,  a  man  of  admirable  character,  who"  had  long 
deplored  the  miseries  of  his  country,  was  now  the  first  to  re- 
lieve it.  At  Thebes,  he  consulted  with  his  fellow-citizens, 
and  it  was  there  resolved,  that  some  vigorous  effort,  though 
it  carried  ever  so  much  danger,  ought  to  be  made  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public  liberty.  Accordingly,  with  a  party  of 
thirty  men  only,  as  Nepos  says,  but,  as  Xenophon,  more 
probably,  says,  of  nearly  seventy,  he  seized  upon  Phyle,  a 
strong  castle  on  the  frontiers  of  Attica. 

This  enterprise  gave  the  alarm  to  the  tyrants,  who  imme- 
diately marched  out  of  Athens,  with  their  three  thousand  fol 


^ 


lowers,  and  their  Spartan  guard,  and  attempted  the  recovery 
of  the  place ;  but  were  repulsed  with  loss.  Finding  they  could 
not  carry  it  by  a  sudden  assault,  they  resolved  upon  a  siege ; 
but,  not  being  sufficiently  provided  for  that  service,  and  a 
great  snow  falling  that  night,  they  were  forced  to  retire,  the 
next  day,  into  the  city,  leaving  only  part  of  their  guard,  to 
prevent  any  further  excursions  into  the  country. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  Thrasybulus  no  longer  kept 
himself  confined,  but  marched*  out  of  Phyle,  by  night,  and,  at 
the  head  of  a  body  of  a  thousand  men,  seized  on  the  Pyraeus. 
The  thirty  flew  thither  with  their  troops,  and  a  battle,  suffi- 
ciently warm,  ensued ;  but,  as  the  soldiers,  on  one  side,  fought 
with  valour  and  vigour  for  their  liberty,  and  on  the  other 
with  indolence  and  neglect,  for  the  power  of  their  oppressors, 
the  success  was  not  doubtful,  but  followed  the  better  cause. 
The  tyrants  were  overthrown ;  Critias  was  killed  upon  the 
spot;  and,  as  the  rest  of  the  army  were  taking  to  flight,  Thra- 
sybulus cried  out,  "  Wherefore,  do  you  fly  from  me,  as  from 
a  victor,  rather  than  assist  me  as  an  avenger  of  your  liberty  ? 
We  are  not  enemies,  but  fellow-citizens ;  nor  have  we  de- 
clared war  against  the  city,  but  against  the  thirty  tyrants." 

He  continued  with  bidding  them  remember,  that  they  had 
the  same  origin,  country,  laws,  and  religion :  he  exhorted 
them  to  compassionate  their  exiled  brethren ;  to  restore  to 
them  their  country,  and  resume  their  liberty  themselves. 
This  discourse  had  suitable  effects :  the  army,  on  their  return 
to  Athens,  expelled  the  Thirty,  and  substituted  ten  persons, 
to  govern,  in  their  room  ;  but  whose  conduct  proved  no  bet- 
ter than  that  of  those  whom  they  had  succeeded. 

Though  the  government  was  thus  altered,  and  the  Thirty 
were  deposed  from  power,  they  still  had  hopes  of  being  re- 
instated in  their  former  authority,  and  sent  messengers  to 
Lacedaemon,  to  demand  aid.  Lysander  was  for  granting  it, 
but  Pausanius,  who  then  reigned  in  Sparta,  moved  with  com- 
passion at  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  Athenians,  favoured 
the^n  in  secret,  and  obtained  a  peace  for  them.  It  was  sealed 
with  the  blood  of  the  tyrants  ;  who,  having  taken  arms  to  re- 
instate themselves  in  the  government,  were  put  to  the  sword, 
and  Athens  was  left  in  full  possession  of  its  liberty. 

Thrasybulus  then  proposed  an  amnesty,  by  which  the  citi- 
zens engaged,  upon  oath,  that  all  past  actions  should  be  buried 
in  oblivion  ;  and  the  government  was  re-established  in  its  an- 
cient forms :  their  laws  were  restored  to  their  past  vigour . 
the  magistrates  elected  with  the  usual  ceremonies ;  and  de- 
mocracy was  once  more  restored  to  this  unfortunate  people 
Xenophon  observes,  that  this  intestine  fury  had  consumed  a^ 


!' 


164 


THE  HISTORY 


many  in  eight  months,  as  the  Peloponnesiau  wax  bad  done  ill 
ten  years. 

Upon  the  re-establishment  of  affairs  in  Athens,  the  other 
states  enjoyed  the  same  tranquillity,  or  rather  kept  in  a  quiet 
subjection  to  Sparta,  which  now  held  the  undoubted  sove- 
reignty of  Greece.  But,  it  being  a  maxim  with  the  Spartans, 
that  this  sovereignty  was  not  to  be  maintained,  but  by  a  con 
stant  course  of  action,  they  were  still  seeking  fresh  occasions 
for  war ;  and  part  of  their  forces,  together  with  another  body 
of  Grecians,  being  at  this  time  engaged  in  a  quarrel  between 
the  Persian  king  and  his  brother,  it  will  be  necessary  to  pass 
over  into  Asia,  and  relate  so  much  of  the  Persian  affairs,  as 
concerns  the  expedition  of  Cyrus,  wherein  those  forces  were 
employed ;  especially,  since  it  is  attended  with  circumstances, 
which  if  duly  considered,  will  easily  make  it  pass  for  one  of 
the  greatest  actions  of  antiquity. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  that  Cyrus,  the  son  of  Darius 
Nothus,  saw,  with  pain,  his  elder  brother,  Artaxerxes,  upon 
the  throne ;  and  more  than  once  attempted  to  remove  him. 
Artaxerxes  was  not  insensible  to  what  he  had  to  fear,  from  a 
brother  of  this  enterprising  and  ambitious  spirit :  but  could 
not  refuse  pardoning  him,  on  the  prayers  and  tears  of  hij 
mother  Parysatis,  who  doated  upon  this  youngest  son.  He 
removed  him,  therefore,  into  Asia,  to  his  government;  con- 
fiding in  him,  contrary  to  all  the  rules  of  policy,  an  absolute 
authority  over  the  provinces  left  him  by  the  will  of  the  king, 
his  father. 

•  He  was  no  sooner  appointed  in  this  manner,  than  he  used 
all  his  arts  with  the  barbarians  and  the  Grecians,  to  procure 
power  and  popularity,  in  order  to  dethrone  his  brother. 
Clearchus  retired  to  his  court,  after  having  been  banished 
from  Sparta,  and  was  of  great  service  to  him,  being  an  able, 
experienced,  and  valiant  captain.  At  the  same  time,  several 
cities  in  the  provinces  of  Tissaphenies  revolted  from  their 
obedience,  in  favour  of  Cyrus. 

This  incident,  which  was  not  an  effect  of  chance,  but  of  the 
secret  practices  of  that  prince,  gave  birth  to  a  war  between 
the  two  brothers.  The  emissaries  of  Cyrus,  at  the  court, 
were  perpetually  dispersing  reports  and  opinions  among  the 
people,  to  prepare  their  minds  for  the  intended  change  and 
revolt.  They  said  that  the  state  required  a  king  of  Cyrus's 
character;  a  king  magnificent,  liberal,  who  loved  war,  and 
snowered  his  favours  upon  those  that  served  him  ;  and  that  it 
was  necessary,  for  the  grandeur  of  the  empire,  to  have  a 
prince  upon  the  throne,  fired  with  ambition  and  valour  foi 
me  support  and  augmentation  of  his  glory. 


OF  GREECE. 


16S 


The  troops  of  Cyrus,  which  were  apparently  levied  for  th^ 
business  of  the  state,  but  in  fact  to  overturn  it,  consisted  of 
thirteen  thousand  Greeks,  which  were  the  flower  and  chief 
force  of  his  army.  Clearchus,  the  Lacedaemonian,  who  com- 
manded the  Peloponnesian  troops,  was  the  only  man  of  all 
the  Greeks,  intrusted  with  the  Persian  prince's  design :  he 
made  it  his  sole  application,  to  gain  the  affections  of  his  peo- 
ple during  their  marches,  by  treating  them  with  great  hu- 
manity, conversing  freely  with  them,  and  giving  effectual  or- 
ders that  they  should  want  for  nothing.  The  Grecian  troops 
knew  neither  the  intent  nor  the  occasion  of  the  war :  they  at 
length  set  out  for  Sardis,  and  marched  towards  the  upper 
provinces  of  Asia. 

When  they  had  arrived  at  Tarsus,  the  Greeks  refused  to 
march  any  farther,  rightly  suspecting  that  they  were  intended 
against  the  king,  and  loudly  exclaiming  that  they  had  not  en- 
tered into  the  service  upon  that  condition.  Clearchus,  who 
commanded  them,  had  occasion  for  all  his  address  and  ability, 
to  stifle  this  commotion,  in  its  birth.  At  first,  he  made  use  of 
authority  and  force,  but  with  very  ill  success,  and  desisted 
therefore  from  an  open  opposition  to  their  sentiments :  he 
even  affected  to  enter  into  their  views,  and  to  support  them 
with  his  approbation  and  credit. 

By  this  artful  evasion,  he  appeased  the  tumult,  and  made 
them  easy ;  and  they  chose  him  and  some  other  officers,  foi 
their  deputies.  Cyrus,  whom  he  had  secretly  apprised  of 
every  thing,  made  answer,  that  he  was  going  to  attack  Abro 
comas,  his  enemy,  at  twelve  days*  march  from  thence,  upor 
the  Euphrates.  When  this  answer  was  repeated  to  them 
though  they  plainly  saw  against  whom  they  were  going,  thei 
resolved  to  proceed,  and  only  demanded  an  augmentation  of 
their  pay. 

Cyrus,  instead  of  one  daric  a  month  to  each  soldier,  pro 
mised  to  give  them  one  and  a  half.  Still  to  ingratiate  him 
self  the  more,  being  told  that  two  officers  had  deserted  fron 
the  army,  and  being  advised  to  pursue  and  put  themjo  death 
he  declared  publicly,  that  it  should  never  be  said  he  had  de 
tained  any  one  person  in  his  service  against  his  will ;  and  h« 
ordered  their  wives  and  children,  who  were  left  as  hostagei 
in  his  army,  to  be  sent  after  them.  A  conduct  so  wise,  ant 
apparently  generous,  had  a  surprising  effect,  in  conciliatini, 
the  affections  of  the  soldiery;  and  made  even  those  his  firnw 
adherents  who  were  before  inclined  to  retire. 

As  Cyrus  advanced  by  long  marches,  he  was  informed 
from  all  parties,  that  the  king  did  not  intend  to  come  directly 
to  a  battle,  but  had  resolved  to  wait,  in  the  remotest  partis  oi 


il 


^ 


■ 


166 


THE  HISTORY 


Persia,  till  all  his  forces  were  assembled ;  and,  that  to  stop 
his  enemies,  he  had  ordered  an  intrenchment  to  be  thrown 
up,  on  the  plains  of  Babylon,  with  a  ditch  of  five  fathoms 
broad,  and  three  deep,  extending  the  space  of  twelve  para- 
sang^as  or  leagues,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  wall  of  Media. 
Between  the  Euphrates  and  the  ditch,  a  way  had  been  left, 
of  twenty  feet  in  breadth,  by  which  Cyrus  passed,  with  his 
whole  army,  having  viewed  it  the  day  before.  The  king  had 
neglected  to  dispute  this  pass  with  him,  and  suffered  him  to 
continue  his  march  towards  Babylon. 

Cyrus  still  continued  to  proceed,  giving  Clearchus  the  com 
mand  of  the  right  Grecian  wing,  and  Menon  that  of  the  left, 
still  marching  in  order  of  battle,  expecting  every  hour  to  en- 
gage :  at  length,  he  discovered  his  brother's  army,  consisting 
of  twelve  hundred  thousand  men,  besides  a  select  body  of  six 
thousand  horse,  approaching,  and  preparing  to  engage. 

The  place  where  the  battle  was  fought,  was  called  Cunaxa, 
about  twenty-five  leagues  from  Babylon.  Cyrus,  getting  on 
horseback,  with  his  javelin  in  his  hand,  gave  orders  to  the 
troops  to  stand  to  their  arms,  and  to  proceed  in  order  of  bat- 
tle. The  enemy,  in  the  mean  time,  advanced  slowly,  in  good 
order.  Artaxerxes  led  them  on  regularly,  with  a  slow  pace, 
without  noise  or  confusion  That  good  order  and  exact  dis- 
cipline, extremely  surprised  the  Greeks,  who  expected  to  see 
much  luxury  and  tumult  in  so  great  a  multitude;  and  to  hear 
confused  cries,  as  Cyrus  had  foretold  them. 

The  armies  were  not  distant  above  four  or  five  hundred 
paces,  when  the  G'reeks  began  to  sing  the  hymn  of  battle,  and 
to  march  on  softly  at  first,  and  with  silence.  When  they  came 
near  the  enemy,  they  set  up  great  cries,  striking  their  darts 
upon  their  shields,  to  frighten  the  horse ;  and  then,  moving 
all  together,  they  sprung  forwards  upon  the  barbarians,  with 
all  their  force,  who  did  not  wait  their  charge,  but  all  fled,  ex- 
cept Tissaphernes,  who  stood  his  ground,  with  a  small  part 
of  his  troops. 

Cyrus  saw,  with  pleasure,  the  enemy  routed  by  the  Greeks, 
and  was  proclaimed  king,  by  those  around  him  ;  but  he  did 
not  give  himself  up  to  a  vain  joy,  nor  as  yet  reckoned  him- 
self victor.  He  perceived  that  Artaxerxes  was  wheeling  his 
right,  to  attack  him  in  flank ;  and  marched  directly  against 
him,  with  his  six  hundred  horse.  He  killed  Artaxerxes,  who 
commanded  the  king's  guard  of  six  thousand  horse,  with  his 
own  hand,  and  put  the  whole  body  to  flight.  Discovering  his 
brother,  he  cried  out  with  his  eyes  sparkling  with  rage,  "  I 
see  him;''  and  spurred  against  him,  followed   only  by  his 


OF  GREECE. 


167 


principal  officers ;  for  his  troops  had  quitted  their  ranks  to 
follow  the  run-aways,  which  was  an  essential  fault. 

The  battle  then  became  a  single  combat,  in  some  measure 
between  Artaxerxes  and  Cyrus ;  and  the  two  brothers  were 
seen  transported  with  rage  and  fury,  endeavouring,  like  Eteo- 
cles,  and  Polynices,  to  plunge  their  swords  into  each  other's 
hearts,  and  to  assure  themselves  of  the  throne,  by  the  death 
ot  their  rival. 

Cyrus,  having  opened  his  way  through  those  who  were 
drawn  up  m  battle  before  Artaxerxes,  joined  him,  and  killed 
his  horse,  which  fell  with  him  to  the  ground :  he  rose,  and 
was  remounted  upon  another,  when  Cyrus  attacked  him  again; 
gave  him  a  second  wound,  and  was  preparing  to  give  him  a 
third,  m  hopes  that  it  would  prove  his  last.  The  king,  like  a 
lion  wounded  by  the  huntsman,  was  only  the  more  furious 
froni  the  smart,  and  sprung  forwards,  impetuously  pushing 
his  horse  against  Cyrus,  who,  running  headlong,  and  without 
regard  to  his  person,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  a  flight 
ot  darts,  aimed  at  him  from  all  sides ;  and  received  a  wound 
Irom  the  kmg's  javelin,  at  the  instant  that  all  the  rest  dis- 
charged upon  him. 

Cyrus  fell  dead ;  some  say  by  the  wound  given  him  by  the 
king ;  others  aflirm  that  he  was  killed  by  a  Carian  soldier. 
1  he  greatest  persons  of  his  court,  resolving  not  to  survives© 
good  a  master,  were  all  killed  around  his  body ;  a  certain 
proof,  says  Xenophon,  that  he  well  knew  how  to  choose  nis 
triends,  and  that  he  was  truly  beloved  by  them.  Arixus,  who 
ought  to  have  been  the  firmest  of  all  his  adherents,  fled,  with 
the  left  wing,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  his  death. 

Artaxerxes,  after  having  caused  the  head  and  right  hand 
nt  his  brother  to  be  cut  off*,  by  the  eunuch  Nesabates,  purs\  ed 
the  enemy  into  their  camp.  Ariaeus  had  not  stopped  the  re, 
but  having  passed  through  it,  continued  his  retreat,  to  '  he 
place  where  the  army  had  encaitfped  the  day  before;  wh  ch 
was  about  four  leagues  distant. 

Tissaphernes,  after  the  defeat  of  the  greater  part  of  <  his 
lelt  wing  by  the  Greeks,  led  on  the  rest  against  them ;  and, 
by  the  side  of  the  river,  passed  through  the  light  armed  in- 
lantry  of  the  Greeks ;  who  opened  to  give  him  a  passage,  and 
made  their  discharges  upon  him,  as  he  passed,  without  losing 
R  man.  They  were  commanded  by  Episthenes,  of  Amj.hi- 
Dohs,  who  was  esteemed  an  able  captain. 

Tissaphernes  kept  on,  without  returning  to  the  charge,  be- 
cause he  perceived  he  was  too  weak;  and  went  forwani  to 
Cyrus*  camp,  where  he  found  the  king  who  was  plundering 


163 


THE  HISTORY 


it,  but  had  not  been  able  to  force  the  quarter  defended  by  the 
ureeks,  who  saved  their  baggage. 

The  Greeks,  on  their  side,  and  Artaxerxes  on  his,  who  did 
not  know  what  had  passed  elsewhere,  believed,  each  of  them, 
that  they  had  gained  the  victory ;  the  first,  because  they  had 
put  the  enemy  to  flight,  and  pursued  them ;  and  the  king,  be- 
cause  he  had  killed  his  brother,  beat  the  troops  he  had  fouUt, 
and  plundered  their  camp.  The  event  was  soon  cleared  up 
on  both  sides.  ^ 

Tissaphernes,on  his  arrival  at  the  camp,  informed  the  kinQ 
that  the  Greeks  had  defeated  his  left  wing,  and  pursued  i 
with  great  vigour ;  and  the  Greeks,  on  their  side,  learnt,  thi. 
the  king,  m  pursuing  Cyrus*  left,  had  penetrated  into  thecami.. 
Upon  this  advice,  the  king  rallied  his  troops,  and  marched  L 
quest  of  the  enemy;  and  Clearchus,  having  returned  from 
pursuing  the  Persians,  advanced  to  support  the  camp. 

The  two  armies  were  soon  very  near  each  other,  when,  by 
a  movement  made  by  the  king,  he  seemed  to  intend  to  charge 
the  Greeks  on  their  left;  who,  fearing  to  be  surrounded, 
wheeled  about,  and  halted,  with  the  river  on  their  backs,  to 
prevent  their  being  taken  in  the  rear.  Upon  seeing  that,  the 
king,  also,  changed  his  form  of  battle,  drew  up  his  army  in 
Iront  of  them,  and  marched  on  to  the  attack.  As  soon  as  the 
t^reeks  saw  him  approach,  they  began  to  sing  the  hymn  of 
battle,  and  advanced  against  the  enemy,  even  with  more  ar- 
dour than  in  the  first  action. 

The  barbarians  again  began  to  fly,  running  farther  than  be- 
fore ;  and  were  pursued  to  a  village  at  the  foot  of  a  hill ;  upon 
which,  their  horse  halted.  The  king's  standard  was  observed 
to  be  there,  which  was  a  golden  eagle  upon  the  top  of  a  pike, 
having  Its  wings  displayed.  The  Greeks,  preparing  to  pur- 
sue them,  they  abandoned  also  the  hill,  fled  precipitately  with 
all  their  troops  broken,  and  in  the  utmost  disorder  and  con- 
iision.  Clearchus,  having  drawn  up  the  Greeks  at  the  bot- 
t.  m  of  the  hill,  ordered  Lycius,  the  Syracusan,  and  another 
u  go  up  It,  and  observe  what  passed  in  the  plain.  They  re- 
ti  rned  with  an  account  that  the  enemy  fled  on  all  sides,  and 
th  It  their  whole  army  was  routed. 

Vs  it  was  almost  night,  the  Greeks  laid  down  their  arms, 
to  -est  themselves,  much  surprised  that  neither  Cyrus,  nor 
any  one  from  him,  appeared ;  and  imagining,  that  he  was 
eith-  r  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  or  was  making 
hast  i  to  occupy  some  important  place.  They  were  still  itjno- 
rant  of  his  death,  and  the  defeat  of  the  rest  of  his  army  •  they 
detei  mined  to  return  to  their  camp,  and  found  the  greater  part 
ot  the  ba§fgage  taken,  with  tdX  the  provisions,  and  four  liun- 


OF  GREECE. 


169 


dreJ  wagons  laden  with  corn  and  wine,  wh^ch  Cyrus  had  ex- 
pressly caused  to  be  carried  with  the  army,  for  the  Greeks, 
in  case  of  any  pressing  necessity.  They  passed  the  night  in 
the  camp,  the  greater  part  without  any  refreshment,  conclud- 
ing that  Cyrus  was  alive  and  victorious. 

Amidst  the  confusion  in  which  the  Grecians  were,  after  tl^c 
battle  they  sent  to  Ariaeus,  as  conqueror  and  commander  in 
chief,  upon  Cyrus*  death,  to  offer  him  the  Persian  crown.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  king,  as  conqueror,  also  on  hi§  side,  sent-, 
to  them  to  surrender  their  arms,  and  implore  his  mercy ;  re- 
presenting to  them,  at  the  same  time,  that,  as  they  were  in 
the  heart  of  his  dominions,  surrounded  with  vast  rivers,  and 
numberless  nations,  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  escape 
his  vengeance,  and  therefore  they  had  nothing  to  do  but  to 
submit  to  the  present  necessity. 

Upon  debating  among  themselves  what  answer  chey  should 
return,  Proxenes  desired  to  know,  of  the  herald,  upon  what 
terms  he  demanded  their  arms ;  if  as  conqueror,  it  was  in  his 
power  to  take  them ;  if  upon  any  other  footing,  what  would 
he  give  them  in  return.  He  was  seconded  by  Xenophon ;  who 
said,  that  they  had  nothing  left  but  their  arms  and  their  liber- 
ty, and  that  they  could  not  preserve  the  one,  without  the  other. 
Clearchus  said  to  the  same  efiect;  that  if  the  king  was  dis- 
posed to  be  their  friend,  they  should  be  in  a  better  capacity 
of  serving  him,  with  arms,  than  without;  if  their  enemy, 
they  should  have  need  of  them  for  their  defence. 

Some,  indeed,  spoke  in  terms  more  complying,  that,  as  they 
nad  served  Cyrus  faithfully,  they  Avould  also  serve  Artaxerxes, 
if  he  would  employ  them,  and  provided  he  would,  at  the  same 
time,  put  them  in  possession  of  Egypt.  At  last,  it  was  agreed, 
they  should  remain  in  the  place  where  they  were ;  and  that 
if  they  advanced  farther,  or  retreated  back,  it  should  be  look- 
ed upon  as  a  declaration  of  war ;  so  that,  by  the  issue  of  the 
debate,  it  appeared  to  have  been  managed  so  as  to  avoid  giv- 
ing a  direct  answer,  but  only  to  amuse  the  king,  and  gain 
time. 

Whilst  this  treaty  was  on  foot,  they  received  Ariaeus*  an- 
swer, that  there  were  too  many  powerful  men  in  Persia,  to  let 
him  possess  the  throne ;  wherefore,  he  intended  to  set  out 
early  the  next  morning,  on  his  return  to  Greece,  and  that  if 
they  had  a  mind  to  accompany  him,  they  should  join  him  that 
night  in  his  camp ;  which  accordingly  they  all  did,  except 
Milthocytus,  a  Thracian,  who  went  with  a  party  of  three  hun- 
dred men  and  forty  horse,  to  the  king.  The  rest,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  forces  of  Ariaeus,  decamped,  by  break  of  day, 
and  continued  their  march  until  sunset,  when  they  discover 


170 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


171 


cd,  from  the  f  ^jighbouring  villages,  that  the  king  was  in  pur- 
suit of  them. 

Clearchus,  who  now  undertook  to  conduct  the  Greeks,  or- 
dered his  troops  to  halt,  and  prepared  for  an  engagement 
The  king  of  Persia,  terrified  by  so  bold  an  appearance,  sent 
heralds,  not  to  demand  their  surrender,  but  to  propose  terms 
of  peace,  and  a  treaty.  When  Clearchus  was  informed  oi 
their  arrival,  he  gave  orders  to  bid  them  wait,  and  to  tell  then 
that  he  was  not  yet  at  leisure  to  hear  them.  He  assumed 
purposely,  an  air  of  haughtiness  and  grandeur,  to  denote  his 
intrepidity,  and  at  the  same  time  to  show  the  fine  appearance 
and  good  condition  of  his  phalanx. 

When  he  advanced,  with  the  most  showy  of  his  officers, 
expressly  chosen  for  the  occasion,  and  had  heard  what  the 
heralds  had  to  propose,  he  made  answer,  that  they  must  begin 
with  giving  battle,  because  the  army,  being  in  want  of  pro- 
visions, had  no  time  to  lose.  The  heralds  having  carried 
back  this  answer  to  their  master,  returned  immediately,  which 
showed  that  the  king,  or  whoever  spoke  in  his  name,  was  not 
far  distant.  They  said,  they  had  orders  to  conduct  them  to 
villages  where  they  would  find  provisions  in  abundance ;  and 
they  conducted  them  thither  accordingly. 

After  three  days*  stay,  Tissaphernes  arrived  from  the  king, 
and  insinuated  to  them  the  good  offices  he  had  employed,  foi 
their  safety.  Clearchus,  in  his  own  defence,  urged,  that  they 
were  engaged  in  this  expedition  without  knowing  the  enemy 
against  whom  they  were  to  contend ;  that  they  were  free  from 
all  engagements,  and  had  no  design  against  the  Persian  king, 
unless  he  opposed  their  return.  Tissaphernes  seemingly 
granted  their  desire,  and  promised  that  they  should  be  fur- 
nished with  all  necessary  provisions  in  their  march ;  and,  to 
confirm  their  security,  that  he  himself  would  be  their  com- 
panion on  the  way. 

^  Accordingly,  in  a  few  days  afterwards,  they  set  out,  under 
his  conduct ;  but,  in  their  march,  the  barbarians,  encamping 
at  about  a  league's  distance  from  the  Grecians,  created  some 
little  distrusts  and  jealousies,  on  both  sides.  In  about  fifty 
days,  having  reached  the  banks  of  the  river  Zabatus,  Clear- 
chus, to  prevent  things  coming  to  an  open  rupture,  had  a 
conference  with  Tissaphernes.  The  result  of  their  discourse, 
was,  that  they  had  been  misrepresented  to  each  other,  by 
some  of  Clearchus*  officers,  and  that  he  should  bring  them  all 
lo  Tissaphernes,  in  order  to  detect  those  who  were  guilty. 

In  consequence  of  this,  it  was  agreed  that  there  should  be 
a  general  consultation  of  officers,  in  which  those  who  had 
been  remiss,  or  attempted  to  sow  any  dissension5  between 


Ihc  two  armies,  should  be  exposed  and  punished.  Menon,  in 
particular,  was  suspected,  on  both  sides,  and  he  was  appoint- 
ed among  the  number.  In  consequence  of  this  fatal  resolu- 
tion, the  five  principal  generals  attended,  the  succeeding  day, 
at  the  Persian  general's  tent.  Their  names  were  Clearchus, 
Menon,  Proxenes,  Agias,  and  Socrates;  (not  the  philosopher;) 
who,  on  a  signal  given,  were  immediately  seized,  their  at- 
tendants put  to  the  sword,  and  themselves,  after  being  sent 
oound  to  the  king,  were  beheaded,  in  his  presence. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  of  the  Greeks, 
when  they  were  informed  of  the  massacre  of  their  generals : 
they  were  now  nearly  two  thousand  miles  from  home,  sur- 
rounded with  great  rivers,  extensive  deserts,  and  inimical  na- 
tions, without  any  supplies  of  provisions.  In  this  state  of 
general  dejection,  they  could  think  of  taking  neither  nourish- 
ment nor  repose:  all  turned  their  eyes  on  Xenophon,  a  young 
Athenian,  who  had  bjen  invited  into  Asia  by  Proxenes,  and 
thitherto  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army. 

This  was  that  Xenophon,  afterwards  so  famous  as  an  his- 
torian, and  his  conduct  seemed  equal  to  his  eloquence ;  in 
which,  he  surpassed  all  the  rest  of  mankind.  This  young 
general  went  to  some  of  the  Greek  officers,  in  the  middle  of 
the  night,  and  represented  to  them,  that  they  had  no  time  to 
lose ;  that  it  was  of  the  last  importance  to  prevent  the  bad 
designs  of  the  enemy  ;  that,  however  small  their  number,  they 
would  render  themselves  formidable,  if  they  behaved  with 
boldness  and  resolution ;  that  valour,  and  not  multitudes,  de- 
termines the  success  of  arms;  and  that  it  was  necessary 
above  all  things,  to  nominate  generals  immediately,  because 
an  army  without  commanders  is  like  a  body  without  a  soul. 

A  council  was  immediately  held,  at  which  a  hundred  offi- 
cers were  present ;  and  Xenophon,  being  desired  to  speak, 
deduced  the  reasons,  at  large,  which  he  had  first  but  lightly 
touched  upon,  and,  by  his  advice,  commanders  were  appoint- 
ed. They  were,  Timasion,  for  Clearchus;  Xanthicles,  for 
Socrates;  Cleanor,  for  Agias;  Philesius,  for  Menon;  and 
Xenophon,  for  Proxenes. 

Before  the  break  of  day,  they  assembled  the  army.  The 
generals  made  speeches,  to  animate  the  troops,  and  Xeno- 
phon among  the  rest.  "  Fellow  soldiers,"  said  he,  *'  the  loss 
of  so  many  brave  men,  by  vile  treachery,  and  the  being  aban- 
doned by  our  friends,  is  very  deplorable,  but  we  must  not 
sink  under  our  misfortunes ;  and  if  we  cannot  conquer,  let  us 
choose  rather  to  perish  gloriously,  than  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  barbarians,  who  would  inflict  upon  ns  the  greatest  mise- 
ries: let  us  call  to  mind  the  glorious  battles  of  Plataea,Ther 

^  P2 


I7d 


THE  HISTORT 


mopylae,  Salaniis,  and  the  many  others,  wherein  oar  ances- 
tors, though  with  a  small  number,  have  fought  and  defeated 
the  innumerable  armies  of  the  Persians,  and  thereby  rendered 
the  name  alone  of  Greeks  for  ever  formidable. 

"  It  is  to  their  invincible  valour  we  owe  the  honourwe  pos- 
sess,  of  acknowledging  no  masters,  upon  earth,  but  the  gods, 
nor  any  happiness,  but  what  consists  with  liberty.  Those 
gods,  the  avengers  of  perjury,  and  witnesses  of  the  enemy^s 
treason,  will  be  favourable  to  us ;  and,  as  they  are  attacked 
in  the  violation  of  treaties,  and  take  pleasure  in  humbling  the 
proud,  and  exalting  the  low,  they  will  also  follow  us  to  battle, 
and  combat  for  us. 

"  For  the  rest,  fellow-soldiers,  as  we  have  no  refuge  but  ii 
victory,  which  must  be  our  hope,  and  will  make  us  ample 
amends  for  whatever  it  costs  to  attain  it,  I  should  believe,  if 
it  were  your  opinion,  that,  for  the  making  a  more  ready  and 
less  difficult  retreat,  it  would  be  very  proper  to  rid  ourselves 
of  all  the  useless  baggage,  and  to  keep  only  what  is  absolute- 
ly necessary  on  our  march." 

All  the  soldiers,  that  moment,  lifted  up  their  hands,  to  sig 
nify  their  approbation  and  consent,  to  all  that  had  been  said ; 
and,  without  loss  of  time,  set  fire  to  their  tents  and  carriages; 
such  of  them  as  had  too  much  equipage,  giving  it  to  others 
who  had  too  little,  and  destroying  the  rest. 

Cherisophas,  the  Spartan  general,  led  the  van,  and  Xeno- 
phon,-  with  Timasion,  brought  up  the  rear.  They  bent  their 
march  towards  the  heads  of  the  great  rivers,  in  order  to  pasj 
them  where  they  were  fordable.  But  they  had  made  little 
way,  before  they  were  followed  by  a  party  of  the  enemy's 
archers  and  sIingcrs,commanded  by  Mithridates,  which  galled 
their  rear,  and  wounded  several  of  them,  who  being  heavy 
armed,  and  without  cavalry,  could  make  no  resistance. 

To  prevent  a  repetition  of  this,  Xenophon  furnished  two 
hundred  Rhodians  with  slings,  and  mounted  fifty  more  of  his 
men  upon  baggage  horses ;  so  that,  when  Mithridates  came 
up  with  them  a  second  time,  and  with  a  much  greater  body, 
he  repulsed  them  with  loss,  and  made  good  his  retreat,  with 
this  handful  of  men,  until  he  arrived  near  the  city  of  Larissa, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  From  thence,  they  marched  to 
another  desolate  city,  called  Mepsile;  and,  about  four  leagues 
from  that  place,  Tissaphernes  overtook  them,  with  his  whole 
army,  in  order  of  battle;  but,  after  se^craI  skirmishes,  was 
forced  to  retire. 

In  a  few  days  afterwards,  he  secured  an  eminence,  over 
which  the  Grecians  were  obliged  to  make  their  way,  which 
Xenophon  perceiving,  took  a  detachment  of  the  army,  and 


OF  GHBECE. 


173 


with  great  diligence,  gained  the  top  of  a  mountain  which 
commanded  that  eminence,  from  whence  he  easily  dislodged 
the  enemy,  and  opened  a  passage  for  the  rest  of  his  troops 
into  the  plain,  where  they  found  plenty  of  provisions.  Tissa- 
phernes had  done  what  he  could,  before,  to  bum  and  destroy 
the  country. 

But  still,  they  were  under  as  great  difficulties  as  ever,  be- 
ing bounded,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  Tigris,  and  on  the  other 
by  inaccessible'mountains,  inhabited  by  the  Carduchi,  a  fierce 
and  warlike  people ;  and  who,  Xenophon  says,  had  cut  off  an 
army  of  sixscore  thousand  Persians,  to  a  man,  by  reason  of 
the  difficulty  of  the  ways.  However,  having  no  boats  to  cross 
the  river,  and  the  passage  through  the  mountains  opening 
into  the  rich  plains  of  Armenia,  they  resolved  to  pursue  their 
march  that  way. 

These  barbarians  soon  took  the  alarm,  but  not  being  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  Greeks  in  a  body,  they  posted  themselves 
upon  the  tops  of  the  rocks  and  mountains,  and  from  thence 
annoyed  them  with  darts  and  great  stones,  which  they  threw 
down  into  the  defiles  through  which  they  passed,  in  which 
they  were  also  attacked  by  several  other  parties ;  and,  though 
their  loss  was  not  considerable,  yet,  from  storms  and  famine, 
besides  seven  tedious  days*  march,  and  being  continually 
forced  to  fight  their  way,  they  underwent  more  fatigue  and 
hardship,  than  they  had  suffiired  from  the  Persians,  during 
the  whole  expedition. 

They  soon  found  themselves  exposed  to  new  dangers.  Al- 
most at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  they  came  to  a  river,  two 
hundred  feet  in  breadth,  called  Centrites,  which  stopped  their 
march.  They  had  to  defend  themselves  against  the  enemy, 
who  pursued  them  in  the  rear,  and  the  Armenians,  the  sol- 
diers of  the  country,  who  defended  the  opposite  side  of  the 


river. 


They  attempted  to  pass  it,  in  a  place  where  the  water  came 
lip  to  their  arm-pits,  but  were  carried  away  by  the  rapidity 
of  the  current ;  against  which,  the  weight  of  their  arms  made 
them  unable  to  resist.  By  good  fortune,  they  discovered  an- 
other place,  not  so  deep,  where  some  soldiers  had  seen  the 
people  of  the  country  pass.  It  required  the  greatest  address, 
diligence,  and  valour,  to  keep  off  the  enemy,  on  both  sides  ol 
them.  The  army,  however,  at  length  passed  the  river,  with 
out  much  loss. 

They  marched  forward  with  less  interruption,  passed  the 
source  of  the  Tigris,  and  arrived  at  the  little  river  Teleboa, 
which  is  very  beautiful,  and  has  many  villages  on  its  banks. 
Jlere,  began  the  western  Armenia,  which  was  governed  by 


174 


THE  HISTORY 


Tiribasus,  a  satrap  much  beloved  by  the  king,  and  who  had 
the  honour  to  help  him  to  mount  on  horseback,  when  at  the 
court.  He  offered  to  let  the  army  pass,  and  to  suffer  the  sol- 
diers to  take  all  they  wanted,  upon  condition  that  they  should 
commit  no  ravag^es  in  their  march  j  which  proposal  was  ac- 
cepted, and  ratified  on  each  side. 

Tiribasus  kept  always  a  flying  camp  at  a  small  distance 
from  the  army.  There  fell  a  great  quantity  of  snow,  which 
gave  the  troops  some  inconvenience;  and  they  learnt,  from  a 
prisoner,  that  Tiribasus  designed  to  attack  the  Greeks  at  a 
pass  on  the  mountains,  in  a  defile  through  which  they  must 
necessarily  march.  They  prevented  him,  by  seizing  that  post, 
after  having  put  the  enemy  to  flight.  After  some  days'  march 
through  the  desert,  they  passed  the  Euphrates,  near  its  source, 
not  having  the  water  above  their  middles. 

They  suffered  exceedingly,  afterwards,  from  a  north  wind, 
which  blew  in  their  faces,  and  prevented  respiration :  so  that 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  sacrifice  to  the  wind  ;  upon  which, 
it  seemed  to  abate.  They  marched  on,  in  snow,  five  or  six 
feet  deep,  which  killed  several  servants  and  beasts  of  burthen, 
besides  thirty  soldiers.  They  made  fires  during  the  night, 
for  they  found  plenty  of  wood. 

All  the  next  day,  they  continued  their  march  through  the 
snow,  when  many  of  them,  frorai  the  excess  of  hunger,  follow- 
ed with  languor,  or  fainting,  continued  lying  on  the  ground, 
through  weakness  and  want  of  spirits  ;  but,  when  something 
had  been  given  them  to  eat,  they  found  themselves  relieved, 
and  continued  their  march. 

In  seven  days  more,  they  arrived  at  the  river  Araxes,  called 
also  the  Phasus,  which  is  about  a  hundred  feet  in  breadth 
Two  days  afterwards,  they  discovered  the  Phasians,  the  Cha- 
lybes,  and  the  Taochians,  who  kept  the  pass  of  the  mountain, 
to  prevent  their  descending  into  the  plain.  They  saw  it  was 
impossible  to  avoid  coming  to  a  battle  with  them,  and  le* 
solved  to  engage  the  same  day. 

Xenophon,  who  had  observed  that  the  enemy  defended  only 
the  ordinary  passage,  and  that  the  mountain  was  three  leagues 
in  extent,  proposed  the  sending  a  detachment,  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  heights  that  commanded  the  enemy,  which  would 
not  be  difficult,  as  they  might  prevent  all  suspicion  of  their  de- 
sign, by  a  march  in  the  night,  and  by  making  a  false  attack, 
by  the  main  road,  to  amuse  the  barbarians.  This  was  accord- 
ingly executed,  the  enemy  put  to  flight,  and  the  pass  cleared. 
Thus,  after  twelve  or  fifteen  days'  march,  they  arrived  at  a 
very  high  mountain,  called  Tecqua,from  whence  they  descried 
the  sea.     The  first  who  perceived  it,  raised  great  shouts  of 


OF  GREECE. 


175 


jny,  for  a  considerable  time,  which  made  Xenophon  imagine 
that  the  vanguard  was  attacked,  and  he  went,  in  all  haste,  to 
support  it.  As  he  approached  nearer,  the  cry  of,  "  The  sea  I 
the  sea!"  was  heard  distinctly;  and  the  alarm  changed  into 
joy  and  gaiety  ;  and,  when  they  came  to  the  top,  nothing  was 
heard  but  a  confused  noise  of  the  whole  army  crying  out  to- 
gether, "  The  sea  !  the  sea !"  whilst  they  could  not  refrain 
from  tears,  nor  from  embracing  their  generals  and  ofliccrs; 
and  then,  without  waiting  for  orders,  they  heaped  up  a  pile 
of  stones,  and  erected  a  trophy,  with  broken  bucklers  and 
other  arms. 

From  thence,  they  advanced  to  the  mountains  of  Colchis 
one  of  which  was  higher  than  the  rest,  and  of  thut  the  people 
of  the  country  had  taken  possession.  The  Greeks  drew  up 
in  battle,  at  the  bottom  of  it,  to  ascend :  for  the  access  was 
not  impracticable.  Xenophon  did  not  judge  it  proper  to 
march  in  line  of  battle,  but  by  defiles ;  because  the  soldiers 
could  not  keep  their  ranks  from  the  inequality  of  the  ground, 
that  in  some  places  was  easy,  in  others  difficult  to  climb, 
which  might  discourage  them. 

The  heavy  armed  troops  amounted  to  eighty  files,  each  con- 
sisting of  about  one  hundred  men;  with  eighteen  hundred 
light  armed  soldiers,  divided  into  three  bodies ;  one  of  which 
was  posted  on  the  right,  another  on  the  left,  and  the  third  in 
the  centre.  After  having  encouraged  his  troops,  by  represent- 
ing to  them,  that  this  was  the  last  obstacle  they  had  to  sur- 
mount, and  implored  the  assistance  of  the  gods,  the  army  be- 
gan to  ascend  the  hill.  The  enemy  were  not  able  to  support 
their  charge,  and  dispersed.  They  passed  the  mountain,and  en- 
camped in  villages,  where  they  found  provisions  in  abundance. 
A  very  strange  accident  happened  there  to  the  army,  which 
put  them  in  great  consternation.  The  soldiers,  finding  abun- 
dance of  bee-hives  in  that  place,  and  eating  the  honey,  were 
taken  with  violent  vomiting  and  fluxes,  attended  with  raving 
fits ;  so  that  those  who  were  least  ill,  seemed  like  drunken 
men,  and  the  rest  either  furiously  mad,  or  dying.  The  earth 
was  strewed  with  their  bodies,  as  after  a  defeat :  however, 
none  of  them  died :  and  the  distemper  ceased  the  next  day, 
about  the  sanie  hour  it  had  commenced.  The  third  or  fourth 
day,  the  soldiers  got  up,  but  in  the  condition  in  which  peo- 
ple are,  after  taking  a  violent  medicine. 

Two  days  afterwards,  the  army  arrived  near  Trebisond,  a 
Greek  colony  of  Sinopians,  situated  upon  the  Euxine  or  Black 
sea,  in  the  province  of  Colchis.  Here,  they  lay  encamped 
for  thirty  days,  and  acquitted  themselves  of  the  vows  they 
nad  made  to  Jupiter,  Hercules,  and  the  other  deities^  to  ob 


■■■'( 


I 


176 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


177 


tain  a  happy  return  into  their  own  country:  they  also  cele- 
brated the  games  of  horse  and  foot  races,  wrestling,  boxing, 
the  pancratium ;  the  whole  attended  with  the  greatest  joy  and 
solemnity. 

Here,  Xenophon  formed  a  project  of  settling  them  in  those 
parts,  and  founding  a  Grecian  colony,  which  was  approved  of 
by  some ;  but  his  enemies  representing  it  to  the  army,  only 
as  a  more  honourable  way  of  abandoning  them ;  and,  to  th* 
inhabitants,  as  a  design  to.  subdue  and  enslave  the  country, 
lie  was  forced  to  abandon  that  enterprise.  However,  the  re- 
port of  it  had  this  good  effect,  that  the  natives  did  what  they 
ould,  in  a  friendly  manner,  to  procure  their  departure,  ad- 
vising them  to  go  by  sea,  as  the  safest  way,  and,  for  that  pur- 
pose, furnished  them  with  a  sufficient  number  of  transports. 

Accordingly,  they  embarked,  with  a  fair  wind,  and  the  next 
day  got  into  the  harbour  of  Sinope ;  where  Cherisophus  met 
them,  with  some  gallies :  but,  instead  of  the  money  they  had 
also  expected  from  him,  he  told  them  they  should  be  paid 
their  arrears,  as  soon  as  they  got  out  of  the  Euxine  sea.  But 
this  answer  occasioned  a  great  deal  of  murmuring  and  dis- 
content :  so  that  they  resolved  to  put  themselves  under  one 
general,  desiring  Xenophon,  in  the  most  pressing  and  affec- 
tionate terms,  to  accept  of  that  command,  which  he  modestly 
declined,  and  procured  the  choice  to  fall  upon  Cherisophus. 
.  But  he  enjoyed  it  not  above  six  or  seven  days.  No  sooner 
had  they  arrived  at  Heraclea,  than  the  army  deposed  him,  for 
refusing  to  extort  a  sum  of  money  from  the  inhabitants  of 
that  city;  which  beinp^  a  Grecian  colony, Xenophon  likewise 
refused  to  concern  himself  in  that  affair ;  so  that  the  army, 
being  disappointed  in  their  hopes  of  plunder,  fell  into  a  mu- 
tiny, and  divided  into  three  bodies,  after  making  a  slight  re- 
treat. When  divided  from  their  barbarian  enemies,  they  were 
nappily  reunited,  and  encamped  at  the  port  of  Calpe,  where 
they  settled  the  command  as  before,  substituting  Neon  in  the 
room  of  Cherisophus,  who  died  here,  and  making  it  death  for 
any  man  henceforward  to  propose  the  dividing  of  the  army. 

But,  being  straitened  for  provisions,  they  were  forced  to 
spread  themselves  in  the  vallies,  where  Pharnabazus'  horse, 
being  joined  by  the  inhabitants,  cut  in  pieces  five  hundred  of 
them  :  the  rest  escaping  to  the  hill,  were  rescued  and  brought 
)ff  by  Xenophon ;  who,  after  this,  led  them  through  a  large 
forest,  where  Pharnabazus  had  posted  his  troops  to  oppose 
theii  passage;  hut  they  entirely  defeated  him,  and  pursued 
their  march  to  Chrysopolis  of  Chalcedon,  having  got  a  great 
Jeal  of  booty  in  their  way ;  and  then  to  Byzantium. 

From  thence,  he  Jed  them  to  Salmydessa,  to  serve  Seuthes^ 


prince  of  Thrace ;  who  had  before  solicited  Xenophon,  by  hra 
envoys,  to  bring  troops  to  his  aid,  in  order  to  his  re-establish 
ment  in  his  father's  dominions,  of  which  his  enemies  had  de- 
prived him.  He  had  made  Xenophon  great  promises,  for 
himself  and  his  troops :  but,  when  he  had  done  him  the  ser- 
vice he  wanted,  he  was  so  far  from  keeping  his  word,  that  he 
did  not  give  them  the  stipulated  pay. 

Xenophon  reproached  him  exceedingly,  with  this  breach 
of  faith ;  imputing  his  perfidy  to  his  minister  Heraclides,  who 
thought  to  make  his  court  to  his  master  by  saving  him  a  sum 
of  money,  at  the  expense  of  justice,  faith  and  honesty  ;  quali- 
ties which  ought  to  be  dearer  than  all  others  to  a  prince,  as 
they  contribute  the  most  to  his  reputation,  as  well  as  to  the 
success  of  affairs,  and  the  security  of  a  state.  But  that 
treacherous  minister,  who  looked  upon  honour,  probity,  and 
justice,  as  mere  chimeras,  and  considered  nothing  as  real,  but 
the  possession  of  much  money,  had  no  thoughts,  in  conse- 
quence, but  of  enriching  himself,  by  any  means  whatsoever, 
and  robbed  his  master  first  with  impunity,  and  all  his  subjects 
besides. 

"  However,"  continued  Xenophon,  "  every  wise  man,  es- 
pecially in  authority  and  command,  ought  to  regard  justice, 
probity,  and  the  faith  of  engagements,  as  the  most  precious 
treasure  he  can  possess;  and  as  an  assured  resource  and  in- 
fallible support,  in  all  the  events  that  can  happen." 

Heraclides  was  the  more  in  the  wrong  for  acting  in  this 
manner  with  regard  to  the  troops,  as  he  was  a  native  of 
Gr^eece,  and  not  a  Thracian  ;  but  avarice  had  extinguished  in 
him  all  sense  of  honour. 

Whilst  the  dispute  between  Seuthes  and  Xenophon  was 
warmest,  Carminus  and  Polynices  arrived,  as  ambassadors 
from  Lacedaemon,  and  brought  advice,  that  the  republic  had 
declared  war  against  Tissaphernes  and  Pharnabazus;  that 
Thimbron  had  already  embarked  with  the  trosps,  and  pro- 
mised a  daric  a  month  to  every  soldier,  two  to  each  officer, 
and  four  to  the  colonels,  who  should  engage  in  the  service. 
Xenophon  accepted  the  offer,  and,  having  obtained  from  Seu- 
thes, by  the  mediation  of  the  ambassadors,  part  of  the  pay 
due  him,  he  went,  by  sea,  to  Lampsacus,  with  the  army,  which 
amounted,  at  that  time,  to  almost  six  thousand  men. 

From  thence,  he  advanced  to  Pergamus,  a  city  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Troas.  Having  met  near  Parthenia,  (where  ended 
the  expedition  of  the  Greeks)  a  great  nobleman  returning  intc 
Persia,  he  captured  him,  together  with  his  wife  and  children 
•ind  all  his  equipage;  and,  by  that  means, found  himfielf  in  a 
condition  to  bestow  great  liberalities  amongst  the  soldiers. 


* 


178 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


^!^ 


and  to  make  them  satisfactory  amends  for  all  the  losses  they 
had  sustained.  Thimbron  at  length  having  arrived,  took  upon 
him  the  command  of  the  troops;  and,  having  joined  them 
with  his  own,marchcd  against  Tissaphernes  and  Pharnabazus. 

Such,  was  the  event  of  Cyrus*  expedition.  Xenophor, 
reckons,  from  the  first  setting  out  of  that  prince's  army  from 
the  city  of  Ephesus,  to  their  arrival  where  the  battle  was 
fought,  five  hundred  and  thirty  parasangas,  or  leagues;  and 
ninety-three  days'  march  ;  and,  in  their  return,  from  the  place 
of  battle  to  Cotyora,  a  city  upon  the  coast  of  the  Euxine,  or 
Black  Sea,  six  hundred  and  twenty  parasangas  or  leagues,  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty  days'  march ;  and,  adding  both  to- 
gether, he  says  the  way,  going  and  returning,  was  eleven  hun- 
dred and  fifty-five  parasangas,  or  leagues,  and  two  hundred 
and  fifteen  days'  march ;  and  that  the  whole  time  the  army 
took  to  perform  that  journey,  including  the  days  of  rest,  wat 
fifteen  months. 

This  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks,  has  always  passed 
among  judges  of  the  art  of  war, -as  a  most  extraordinary  un- 
dertaking; and  it,  in  some  measure,  inspired  them,  ever  after, 
with  a  contempt  for  the  power  of  the  Persians :  it  taught 
them,  that  their  dominions  could  be  invaded  without  danger ; 
and,  that  marching  into  Persia  was  but  pursuing  an  unresist- 
ing enemy,  that  only  appeared  to  offer  victory,  rather  than 
battle. 

In  the  mean  time,  while  Greece  was  gaining  fame  in  Pei*- 
sia,  Athens  was  losing  its  honour  at  home ;  though  it  had  now 
some  breathing  time  to  recover  from  its  late  confusions,  yet 
still  there  were  the  seeds  of  rancour  remaining,  and  the  citi- 
zens opposed  each  other,  with  unremitting  malice.     Socrates 
was  the  first  object  that  fell  a  sacrifice  to  these  popular  dis- 
sensions.    We  have  already  seen  this  great  man,  who  was  the 
son  of  an  obscure  citizen  at  Athens,  emerging  from  the  mean 
ness  of  his  birth,  and  giving  examples  of  courage,  moderation 
and  wisdom  ;  we  have  seen  him  saving  the  life  of  Alcibiades, 
in  battle ;  refusing  to  concur  in  the  edict  which  unjustly  doom- 
ed the  six  Athenian  generals  to  death  ;  withstanding  the  thirty 
tyrants,  and  spurning  the  bigotry  and  persecution  of  the  times, 
with  the  most  acute  penetration,  and  the  most  caustic  raille- 
ry.    He  possessed  unexampled  good  nature,  and  a  universal 
love  of  mankind  :  he  was  ready  to  pity  vices  in  others,  while 
he  was  in  the  greatest  measure  free  from  them  himself;  hoM'- 
ever,  he  <tnew  his  owTi  defects,  and,  if  he  was  proud  of  any 
thing,  it  was  in  the  being  thought  to  have  none. 

^  He  seemed,"  says  Libanius,  **  the  common  father  of  the 
republic ;  so  attentive  was  he  to  the  happiness  and  advantage  ' 


179 


trf  his  whole  country."  But,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  correct 
the  aged,  and  to  make  people  change  principles,  who  revere 
the  errors  in  which  they  have  grown  gray,  he  devoted  his 
labours  principally  to  the  instruction  of  youth,  in  order  to  sow 
the  seeds  of  virtue  in  a  soil  more  fit  to  produce  its  fruits. 

He  had  no  open  school,  like  the  rest  of  the  philosophers, 
nor  set  »imes  for  his  lessons:  he  had  no  benches  prepared 
nor  ever  mounted  a  professor's  chair ;  he  was  the  philoso' 
pher  of  all  times  and  seasons ;  he  taught  in  all  places,  and 
upon  all  occasions,  in  walking,  conversation  at  meals,  in  the 
army,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  camp,  in  the  public  assemblies 
of  the  senate  or  people.  Such,  was  the  man,  whom  a  faction 
in  the  city  had  long  devoted  to  destruction :  he  had  been,  for 
nriany  years  before  his  death,  the  object  of  their  satire  and 
ridicule. 

Aristophanes,  the  comic  poet,  was  engaged  to  expose  him 
upon  the  stage  :  he  composed  a  piece,  called  the  Clouds, 
wherein  he  introduced  the  philosopher  in  a  basket,  uttering 
tlie  most  ridiculous  absurdities.  Socrates,  who  was  present 
at  the  exhibition  of  his  own  char? cter,  seemed  not  to  feel  the 
least  emotion  ;  and,  as  some  strangers  were  present,  who  de- 
sired to  know  the  original  for  whom  the  play  was  intended, 
he  rose  up  from  his  seat,  and  shower^  himself  during  the 
whole  representation. 

This  was  the  first  blow  struck  at  him ;  and  it  was  not  till 
twenty  years  afterwards,  that  Melitus  appeared,  in  a  more 
formal  manner,  as  his  accuser,  and  entered  a  regular  process 
against  him.  His  accusation  consisted  of  two  heads:  the  first 
was,  that  he  did  not  admit  the  gods  acknowledged  by  the 
republic,  and  introduced  new  divinities ;  the  second,  that  he 
corrupted  the  youth  of  Athens :  he  therefore  inferred  that 
sentence  of  death  ought  to  pass  against  him. 

How  far  the  whole  charge  affected  him,  is  not  easy  to  de- 
termine. It  is  certain,  that,  amidst  so  much  zeal  and  super- 
stition as  then  reigned  in  Athens,  he  never  durst  openly  op- 
pose the  received  religion,  and  was  therefore  forced  to  pre- 
serve an  outward  show  of  it ;  but  it  is  very  probable,  from 
the  discourses  he  frequently  held  with  his  friends,  that,  in 
his  heart,  he  despised  and  laughed  at  their  monstrous  opin 
ions  and  ridiculous  mysteries,  as  having  no  other  foundation 
than  the  fables  of  the  poets ;  and  that  he  had  attained  to  the 
notion  of  the  one  only  true  God,  insomuch,  that,  upon  account 
both  of  his  belief  of  the  Deity,  and  the  exemplariness  of  his 
life,  some  have  thought  fit  to  rank  him  with  the  Christian 
philosophers. 
As  soon  as  the  conspiracy  broke  out,  the  friends  of  Socrates 


mo 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


181 


prepared  for  his  defence.  Lycias,  the  most  able  orator  of  his 
time,  brought  him  an  elaborate  discourse  of  his  own  compos- 
ing, wherein  he  had  set  forth  the  reasons  and  measures  of 
Socrates  in  their  full  force,  and  interspersed  the  whole  with 
tender  and  pathetic  strokes,  capable  of  moving  the  most  ob- 
durate hearts.  Socrates  read  it  with  pleasure,  and  approved 
it  very  much ;  but,  as  it  was  more  conformable  to  the  rules 
of  rhetoric,  than  the  sentiments  and  fortitude  of  a  philoso- 
pher, he  told  him  frankly  that  it  did  not  suit  him.  Upon 
which,  Lycias  having  asked,  how  it  was  possible  to  be  well 
done,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  suit  him ;  "  In  the  same 
manner,'*  said  he,  using,  according  to  his  custom,  a  vulgar 
comparison,  "  that  an  excellent  workman  might  bring  me 
magnificent  apparel,  or  shoes  embroidered  with  gold,  to  which 
nothing  would  be  wanting,  on  his  part,  but  which,  however, 
would  not  fit  me.'* 

He  persisted,  therefore,  inflexibly  in  the  resolution  not  to 
demean  himself,  by  begging  suffrages  in  the  low  abject  man- 
ner common  at  that  time.  He  employed  neither  artifice,  nor 
the  glitter  of  eloquence;  he  had  no  recourse  either  to  solid 
tation  or  entreaty ;  he  brought  neither  his  wife  nor  children, 
to  incline  his  judges  in  his  favour,  by  their  sighs  and  tears : 
nevertheless,  though  he  firmly  refused  to  make  use  of  any 
other  voice  than  his  own,  in  his  defence,  and  to  appear  before 
his  judges  in  the  submissive  posture  of  a  suppliant,  he  did 
not  behave  in  that  manner  out  of  pride  or  contempt  of  the 
tribunal ;  it  was  from  a  noble  and  intrepid  assurance ,  result 
ing  from  greatness  of  soul,  and  the  consciousness  of  his  truth 
and  innocence ;  so  that  his  defence  had  nothing  timorous  or 
weak. 

His  discourse  was  bold,  manly,  generous,  without  passion 
without  emotion,  full  of  the  noble  liberty  of  a  philosopher, 
with  no  other  ornament  than  that  of  truth,  and  brightened 
universally  with  the  character  and  language  of  innocence 
Plato,  who  was  present,  transcribed  it  afterwards,  and,  with 
out  any  additions,  composed  from  it  the  work  which  he  call« 
the  Apology  of  Socrates,  one  of  the  most  consummate  master 
pieces  of  antiquity.     1  shall  here  make  an  extract  from  it. 

Upon  the  day  assigned,  the  proceedings  commenced,  in  the 
usual  forms:  the  parties  appeared  before  the  judges,  and  Me- 
litus  spoke ;  the  worse  his  cause,  and  the  less  provided  it  was 
with  proofs,  the  more  occasion  he  had  for  address  and  art,  to 
cover  its  weakness :  he  omitted  nothing  that  might  render 
the  adverse  party  odious ;  and,  instead  of  reasons  which  could 
not  but  fail  him,  he  substituted  the  delusive  shine  of  a  lively 
and  pompous  eloquence. 


Socrates,  in  observing,  that  he  could  not  tell  what  impre^ 
sion  the  discourse  of  his  accusers  might  make  upon  the  judges, 
owns,  that,  for  his  part,  he  scarcely  knew  himself,  they  had 
given  such  artful  colouring  and  likelihood  to  their  arguments, 
though  there  was  not  the  least  word  of  truth  in  all  they  had 
advanced. 

"  I  am  accused  of  corrupting  the  youth,  and  of  instilling 
dangerous  maxims  into  them,  as  well  in  regard  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods,  as  the  rules  of  government.  You  know, 
Athenians,  that  I  never  made  it  my  profession  to  teach ;  nor 
can  envy,  however  violent  against  me,  reproach  me  with  hav- 
ing ever  sold  my  instructions.  I  have  an  undeniable  evidence 
for  me  in  this  respect,  which  is  my  poverty. 

"  Always  equally  ready  to  communicate  my  thoughts,  eithei 
to  the  rich  or  poor,  and  to  give  them  entire  leisure  to  ques- 
tion or  answer  me,  I  lend  myself  to  every  one  who  is  desiroujs 
of  becoming  virtuous ;  and  if,  amongst  those  who  hear  me, 
there  are  any  that  prove  either  good  or  bad,  neither  the  vir- 
tues of  the  one,  nor  the  vices  of  the  other,  to  which  I  have 
not  contributed,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  me. 

"  My  whole  employment  is  to  persuade  the  young  and  old 
against  too  much  love  for  the  body,  for  riches,  and  all  other 
precarious  things,  of  whatsoever  nature  they  be ;  and  against 
too  little  regard  for  the  soul,  which  ought  to  be  the  object  of 
their  affection.  I  incessantly  urge  to  you,  that  virtue  does 
not  proceed  from  riches ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  riches  from 
virtue :  and  that  all  the  other  goods  of  human  life,  as  well 
public  as  private,  have  their  source  in  the  same  principle. 

"  If,  to  speak  in  this  manner,  be  to  corrupt  youth,  I  con- 
fess, Athenians,  that  I  am  guilty,  and  deserve  to  be  punished. 
If  what  I  say  be  not  true,  it  is  most  easy  to  convict  me  of 
my  falsehood.  I  see  here  a  great  number  of  my  disciples : 
they  have  only  to  appear.  But,  perhaps  the  reserve  and  con- 
sideration for  a  master  who  has  instructed  them,  will  pre- 
vent them  from  declaring  against  me ;  at  least,  their  fathers, 
brothers,  and  uncles,  cannot,  as  good  relations  and  good  citi- 
zens, dispense  with  their  now  standing  forth,  to  demand  ven- 
geance against  the  corrupter  of  their  sons,  brothers,  and 
nephews.  But  these  are  the  persons  who  take  upon  them  my 
defence,  and  interest  themselves  in  the  success  of  my  cause. 

"  Pass  on  me  what  sentence  you  please,  Athenians  ;  but,  1 
can  neither  repent  nor  change  my  conduct :  I  must  not  aban- 
don oi  ..uspend  a  function  which  God  himself  has  imposed 
on  me.  Now,  he  has  charged  me  with  the  care  of  instructing 
my  fellow-citizens.  If,  after  having  faithfully  kept  all  the 
posts  wherein  I  was  placed  by  our  generals  at  Potidaea,  Am 


183 


THE  HISTORY 


ptiipoUs,  and  Delium,  the  fear  of  death  should,  at  tnis  time, 
make  me  abandon  that  in  which  the  divine  Providence  has 
placed  me,  by  commanding  me  to  pass  my  life  in  the  study 
of  philosophy,  for  the  instruction  of  myself  and  others  ;  this 
would  be  a  most  criminal  desertion,  indeed,  and  make  me 
hiijhly  worthy  ot  being  cited  before  this  trilAmal  as  an  im- 
pious man,  who  does  not  believe  the  gods. 

"  Should  you  resolve  to  acquit  me ;  for  the  future,  I  should 
not  hesitate  to  make  answer,  Athenians,  I  honour  and  love 
you, but  I  shall  choose  rather  to  obey  God  than  you;  and,  to 
my  latest  breath,  shall  never  renounce  my  philosophy,  nor 
cease  to  exhort  and  reprove  you  according  to  my  custom,  by 
telling  each  of  you,  when  you  come  in  my  way,  my  good 
friend,  and  citizen  of  the  most  famous  city  in  the  world  for 
wisdom  and  valour,  are  you  not  ashamed  to  have  no  othei 
thoughts  than  that  of  amassing  wealth,  and  of  acquiring  glory, 
credit,  and  dignities,  whilst  you  neglect  the  treasures  of  pru- 
dence, truth  and  wisdom,  and  take  no  pains  in  rendering  your 
soul  as  good  and  perfect,  as  it  is  capable  of  being  ? 

"I  am  reproached  with  abject  fear  and  meanness  of  spirit, 
for  being  so  busy  in  imparting  my  advice  to  every  one  in 
private,  and  for  having  always  avoided  to  be  present  in  your 
assemblies,  to  give  my  counsels  to  my  country.  1  think  I 
have  suflFiciently  proved  my  courage  and  fortitude,  both  in  the 
field,  where  I  have  borne  arms  with  you,  and  in  the  senate, 
where  I  alone  opposed  the  unjust  sentence  you  pronounced 
against  the  ten  captains,  who  had  not  taken  up  and  interred 
the  bodies  of  those  who  were  killed  and  drowned  in  the  sea- 
fight  near  the  island  Arginusae  ;  and  when,  upon  more  than 
one  occasion,  I  opposed  the  violent  and  cruel  orders  of  the 
thirty  tyrants. 

"  What  is  it,  then,  that  has  prevented  me  from  appearing 
in  your  assemblies  ?  It  is  that  demon,  that  voice  divine,  which 
you  have  so  often  heard  me  mention,  and  Melitus  has  taken 
so  much  pains  to  ridicule.  That  spirit  has  attached  itself  to 
me,  from  my  infancy — it  is  a  voice  which  I  never  hear,  but 
when  it  would  prevent  me  from  persisting  in  something  I 
have  resolved — for  it  never  exhorts  me  to  undertake  any 
thing.  It  is  the  same  being  that  has  always  opposed  me, 
when  I  would  have  intermeddled  in  the  affairs  of  the  republic, 
and  that  with  the  greatest  reason  ;  for,  I  should  have  been 
amongst  the  dead,  long  ago,  had  I  been  concerned  in  the 
measures  of  the  state,  without  effecting  any  thing  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  myself  or  our  country. 

"  Do  not  take  it  ill,  I  beseech  you,  if  I  speak  my  thoughts 
without  disguise,  and  with  truth  and  freedom.     Every  man 


\ 


OF  GREECE. 


183 


who  would  generously  oppose  a  whole  people,  either  amongst 
us  or  elsewhere,  and  who  inflexibly  applies  himself  to  pre- 
vent the  violation  of  the  laws,  and  the  practice  of  iniquity  in 
a  government,  will  never  do  so,  long,  with  impunity.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  him  who  would  contend  for  justice, 
if  he  has  any  tfeughts  of  living,  to  remain  in  a  private  sta 
tion,  and  never  to  have  any  share  in  public  affairs. 

"  For  the  rest,  Athenians,  if,  in  the  extreme  danger  I  now 
am,  I  do  not  imitate  the  behaviour  of  those,  who,  upon  less 
emergencies,  have  implored  and  supplicated  their  judges  with 
tears,  and  have  brought  forth  their  children,  relations,  and 
friends,  it  is  not  through  pride  and  obstinacy,  or  any  con- 
tempt for  you,  but  solely  for  your  honour,  and  for  that  of  the 
whole  city. 

"  You  should  know,  that  there  are,  amongst  our  citizens, 
those  who  do  not  regard  death  as  an  evil,  and  who  give  that 
name  only  to  injustice  and  infamy.  At  my  age,  and  with  the 
reputation,  true  or  false,  which  I  have,  would  it  be  consistent 
for  me,  after  all  the  lessons  I  have  given  upon  the  contempt 
of  death,  to  be  afraid  of  it  myself,  and  to  belie,  in  my  last  ac- 
tion, all  the  principles  and  sentiments  of  my  past  life  ? 

"But,  without  speaking  of  my  fame,  which  I  should  ex- 
tremely injure  by  such  a  conduct,  I  do  not  think  it  allowable 
to  intreat  a  judge,  nor  to  be  absolved  by  supplications.  He 
ought  to  be  persuaded  and  convinced.  The  judge  does  not 
sit  on  the  bench,  to  show  favour,  by  violating  the  laws,  but 
to  do  justice,  in  conforming  to  them.  He  does  not  swear  to 
discharge,  with  impunity,  whom  he  pleases,  but  to  do  justice, 
where  it  is  due — we  ought  not,  therefore,  to  accustom  you  to 
perjury,  nor  you  to  suffer  yourselves  to  be  accustomed  to  it; 
for,  in  so  doing,  both  the  one  and  the  other  of  U€  equally  in- 
jure justice  and  religion,  and  both  are  criminals. 

"  Do  not,  therefore, expect  from  me,  Athenians, that  I  should 
have 
honest 
accused 

by  my  prayers,  and  thereby  induce  you  to  violate  your  oaih, 
it  would  be  undeniably  evident,  that  I  teach  you  not  to  believe 
in  the  gods ;  and  even  in  defending  and  justifying  myself, 
should  furnish  my  adversaries  with  arms  against  me,  and 
prove  that  I  believe  no  divinity.  But  I  am  very  far  from  such 
bad  thoughts.  I  am  more  convinced  of  the  existence  of  God, 
than  my  accusers ;  and  so  convinced,  that  I  abandon  mvself 
to  God  and  you,  that  you  may  judge  of  me  as  you  shall  deem 
best  for  yourselves  and  me." 

Socrates  pronounced  this  discourse  with  &  firm  and  intrcwd 

a2    . 


184 


THE  HISTORY 


^: 


tone :  his  air,  his  action,  his  visage,  expressed  nothing  of  the 
accused ;  he  seemed  the  master  of  his  judge?  from  the  assu- 
rance and  greatness  of  soul  with  which  he  spoke,  without 
however  losing  any  thing  of  the  modesty  natural  to  him.  But 
how  slight,  soever,  the  proofs  were  againstJiim,  the  faction 
was  powerful  enough  to  find  him  guilty. 

There  was  the  form  of  a  process  against  him,  and  his  irre 
ligion  was  the  pretence  upon  which  it  was  grounded,  but  his 
death  was  certainly  concerted.  His  steady,  uninterrupted 
course  of  obstinate  virtue,  which  had  made  him,  in  many 
cases,  appear  singular,  and  oppose  whatever  he  thought  ille- 
gal or  unjust,  without  any  regard  to  times  or  persons,  had 
procured  him  a  great  deal  of  envy  and  ill-will. 

By  his  first  sentence,  the  judges  only  declared  Socrates 
guilty ;  but  when,  by  his  answer,  he  appeared  to  appeal  from 
their  tribunal,  to  that  of  justice  and  posterity  ;  when,  instead 
of  confessing  himself  guilty,  he  demanded  rewards  and  hon- 
ours fropi  the  state,  the  judges  were  so  much  offended,  that 
ihey  condemned  him  to  drink  hemlock,  a  method  of  execu- 
tion then  in  use  amongst  them. 

Socrates  received  this  sentence  with  the  utmost  composure. 
Apollodorus,  one  of  his  disciples,  launching  out  into  bitter 
invectives  and  lamentations,  that  his  master  should  die  inno- 
cent : — ^"  What,  (replied  Socrates,  with  a  smile)  would  you 
have  me  die  guilty  ?  Melitus  and  Anytus  may  kill,  but  they 
cannot  hurt  me." 

After  this  sentence,  he  still  continued  with  the  same  se- 
rene and  intrepid  aspect,  with  which  he  had  long  enforced 
virtue,  and  held  tyrants  in  awe :  when  he  entered  his  prison, 
which  now  became  the  residence  of  virtue  and  probity,  his 
friends  followed  him  thither,  and  continued  to  visit  him  dur- 
ing the  interval  between  his  condemnation  and  death,  which 
lasted  for  thirty  days. 

The  cause  of  that  long  delay,  was,  the  Athenians  sent  every 
year  a  ship  to  the  isle  of  Delos,  to  offer  certain  sacrifices: 
and  it  was  prohibited  to  put  any  person  to  death  in  the  city, 
from  the  time  the  priest  of  Apollo  had  crowned  the  poop  of 
this  vessel,  as  a  signal  of  its  departure,  till  the  same  vessel 
should  return;  so  that  sentence  having  been  passed  upon 
Socrates  the  day  after  that  ceremony  began,  it  was  necessary 
to  defer  the  execution  of  it  for  thirty  days,  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  this  voyage. 

In  this  long  interval,  death  had  sufficient  opportunities  to 
present  itself  before  his  eyes  in  all  its  terrors,  and  to  put  his 
constancy  to  the  proof;  not  only  by  the  severe  rigour  of  a 
dungeon,  and  the  irons  upon  his  legs,  but  by  the  continual 


OF  GREECE. 


185 


prospect  and  cruel  expectation  of  an  event,  to  which  nature 
IS  always  abhorrent.  In  this  sad  condition,  he  did  not  cease 
to  enjoy  that  profound  tranquillity  of  mind,  which  his  friends 
had  always  admired  in  him.  He  entertained  them  with  the 
same  temper  h^  had  always  expressed ;  and  Crito  observes, 
that  the  evening  before  his  death,  he  slept  as  peaceably  as  at 
any  other  time.  He  composed  also  a  hymn  in  honour  of  Apol- 
lo and  Diana,  and  turned  one  of  ^sop*s  fables  into  verse. 

The  day  before,  or  the  same  day  that  the  ship  was  to  ar- 
rive from  Delos,  the  return  of  which  was  to  be  followed  by 
the  death  of  Socrates,  Crito,  his  intimate  friend,  came  to  him, 
early  in  the  morning,  to  let  him  know  that  bad  news ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  that  it  depended  upon  himself  to  quit  the 
prison :  that  the  jailor  was  gained  ;  that  he  would  find  the 
doors  open,  and  offered  him  a  safe  retreat  in  Thessaly.  Socra 
tes,  who  laughed  at  this  proposal,  asked  him,  "  whether  he 
knew  any  place  out  of  Attica,  where  people  did  not  die  ?" 

Crito  urged  the  thing  very  seriously,  and  pressed  him  to 
take  the  advantage  of  so  precious  an  opportunity,  adding  ar- 
gument upon  argument,  to  induce  his  consent,  and  to  engage 
him  to  resolve  upon  his  escape ;  without  mentioning  the  in- 
consolable grief  he  should  suffer  for  the  death  of  such  a  friend, 
how  should  he  support  the  reproaches  of  an  infinity  of  peo- 
ple, who  would  believe  that  it  was  in  his  power  to  have  saved 
him,  but  that  he  would  not  sacrifice  a  small  part  of  his  wealth, 
for  that  purpose.  Can  the  people  ever  be  persuaded,  that  so 
wise  a  man  as  Socrates  would  not  quit  his  prison,  when  he 
might  do  it  with  all  possible  security  ?  Perhaps  he  might  fear 
to  expose  his  friends,  or  to  occasion  the  loss  of  their  fortunes, 
or  even  their  lives  or  liberty:  ought  there  to  be  any  thing  more 
dear  and  precious  to  them,  than  the  preservation  of  Socrates  ? 
Even  strangers  themselves  dispute  that  honour  with  them, 
many  of  whom  have  come  expressly,  with  considerable  sums 
of  money,  to  purchase  his  escape,  and  declare,  that  they  should 
think  themselves  highly  honoured  to  receive  him  amongst 
them,  and  to  supply  him  abundantly  with  all  he  should  have 
occasion  for:  ought  he  to  abandon  himself  to  enemies  who 
have  occasioned  his  being  condemned  unjustly,  and  can  he 
think  it  allowable  to  betray  his  own  cause  ?  Is  it  not  essentia! 
to  his  goodness  and  justice,  to  spare  his  fellow-citizens  the 
guilt  of  innocent  blood  :  but,  if  all  these  motives  cannot  alter 
him,  and  he  is  not  concerned  in  regard  to  himself,  can  he  be 
insensible  to  the  interests  of  his  children  ?  In  what  a  condi- 
tion does  he  leave  them;  and  can  he  forget  the  father,  to  re- 
member only  the  philosopher  ? 

Socrates,  after  having  heard  him  with  attention,  praised  his 


186 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


187 


Eeal,  and  expressed  his  gratitude ;  but,  before  he  could  assent 
to  his  opinion,  was  for  examining  whether  it  were  just  for 
him  to  depart  out  of  prison,  without  the  consent  of  the  Athe- 
nians. The  question,  therefore,  here  is,  to  know  whether  a 
man  condemned  to  die,  though  unjustly,  can,  without  a  crime, 
escape  from  justice  and  the  laws.  Socrates*held  that  it  was 
unjust;  and,  therefore,  nobly  refused  to  escape  from  prison. 
He  reverenced  the  laws  of  his  country,  and  resolved  to  obey 
them,  in  all  things,  even  in  his  death. 

At  length,  the  fatal  ship  retunied  to  Athens,  which  was,  in 
a  manner,  the  signal  for  the  death  of  Socrates.  The  next 
day,  all  his  friends,  except  Plato,  who  was  sick,  repaired  to 
the  prison,  very  early  in  the  morning.  The  jailor  desired 
them  to  wait  a  little,  because  the  eleven  magistrates  (who  had 
the  direction  of  the  prisons)  were  then  signifying  to  the 
prisoner  that  he  was  to  die  the  same  day. 

Presently  afterwards,  they  entered,  and,  finding  Socrates, 
whose  chains  had  been  taken  oflF,  sitting  by  Xantippe,  his 
wife,"who  held  one  of  his  children  in  her  arms;  as  soon  as 
she  perceived  them,  setting  up  great  cries,  sobbing  and  tear- 
ing her  face  and  hair,  she  made  the  prison  resound  with  her 
complaints.  Oh,  my  dear  Socrates  !  your  friends  are  come 
to  see  you  for  the  last  time !  He  desired  she  might  be  taken 
away,  and  she  was  immediately  carried  home. 

Socrates  passed  the  rest  of  the  day  with  his  friends,  and 
discoursed  with  them,  with  his  usual  cheerfulness  and  tran- 
quillity. The  subject  of  conversation  was  the  most  impor- 
tant, but  adapted  to  the  present  conjuncture;  that  is  to  say, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  What  gave  occasion  to  this 
discourse,  was,  a  question  introduced,  in  a  manner,  by  chance, 
whether  a  true  philosopher  ought  not  to  desire,  and  take 
pains  to  die  ?  This  proposition,  taken  too  literally,  implied 
an  opinion  that  a  philosopher  might  kill  himself. 

Socrates  shows  that  nothing  is  more  unjust  than  this  notion; 
and  that,  man,  appertaining  to  God,  who  formed  and  placed 
him,  with  his  own  hand,  in  the  post  he  possesses,  cannot 
abandon  it  without  his  permission,  nor  depart  from  life  with- 
out his  order.  What  is  it,  then,  that  can  induce  a  philoso- 
pher to  entertain  this  love  for  death  ?  It  can  be  only  the  hope 
of  that  happiness  which  he  expects  in  another  life ;  and  that 
hope  can  be  founded  only  upon  the  opinion  of  the  soul's  im- 
mortality. 

Socrates  employed  the  last  day  of  his  life,  in  entertainirg 
his  friends  upon  this  great  and  important  subject;  from  which 
conversation,  Plato's  admirable  dialogue,  entitled  the  Phaedon, 
is  wholly  taken.  He  explains  to  his  friends  all  the  arguments 


for  believing  the  soul  immortal,  and  refutes  all  the  objections 
against  it,  which  are  very  nearly  the  same  as  are  made  at 
this  day. 

When  Socrates  had  done  speaking,  Crito  desired  him  to 
give  him,  and  the  rest  of  his  friends,  his  last  instructions,  in 
regard  to  his  children  and  other  affairs,  that,  by  executing 
them,  they  might  have  the  consolation  of  doing  him  some 
pleasure.  I  shall  recommend  nothing  to  you  this  day,  replied 
Socrates,  more  than  I  have  already  done,  which  is  to  take 
care  of  yourselves.  You  cannot  do  ygurselves  a  greater  ser- 
vice, nor  do  me  and  my  family  a  greater  pleasure. 

Crito  having  asked  him,  afterwards,  in  what  manner  he 
thought  fit  to  be  buried:  "  As  you  please,"  said  Socrates,  "  if 
you  can  lay  hold  of  me,  and  I  not  escape  out  of  your  hands." 
At  the  same  time,  looking  on  his  friends  with  a  smile,  I  can 
never  persuade  Crito,  that  Socrates  is  he  who  converses  with 
you,  and  disposes  the  several  parts  of  his  discourse,  for  he 
always  imagines  that  I  am  what  he  is  going  to  see  dead  in  a 
little  while;  he  confounds  me  with  my  carcass,  and  therefore 
asks  me  how  I  would  be  interred. 

In  finishing  these  words,  he  rose  up,  5ind  went  to  bathe 
himself,  in  a  chamber  adjoining.  After  he  came  out  of  the 
bath,  his  children  were  brought  to  him,  for  he  had  three, 
two  very  little,  and  the  other  grown  up.  He  spoke  to  them 
for  some  time,  gave  his  orders  to  the  women  who  took  care 
of  them,  then  dismissed  them,  and,  having  returned  into  his 
chamber,  he  laid  himself  down  upon  his  bed.  The  servant 
of  the  eleven  entered,  at  the  same  instant,  and,  having  in- 
formed him  that  the  time  for  drinking  the  hemlock  was 
come,  (which  was  at  sunset)  the  servant  was  so  much  afflict- 
ed with  sorrow,  that  he  turned  his  back,  and  fell  weeping. 
**  See,"  said  Socrates,  "  the  good  heart  of  this  man :  since  my 
imprisonment,  he  has  often  come  to  see  me,  and  to  converse 
with  me :  he  is  njore  worthy  than  all  his  fellows ;  how  heart- 
ily the  poor  man  weeps  for  me  !" 

This  is  a  remarkable  example,  and  might  teach  those  in  an 
office  of  this  kind,  how  they  ought  to  behave  to  all  prisoners, 
but  more  especially  to  persons  of  merit,  when  they  are  so  un- 
happy as  to  fall  into  their  hands.  The  fatal  cup  was  brought. 
Socrates  asked  what  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  do  ?  Nothing 
more,  replied  the  servant,  than,  as  soon  as  you  have  drunk 
off  the  draught,  to  walk  about,  till  you  find  your  legs  grow 
weary,  and  afterwards  to  lie  down  upon  your  bed. 

He  took  the  cup,  without  any  emotion,  or  change  in  his 
colour  or  countenance;  and,  regarding  the  man  with  a  steady 
and  assured  look :  **  Well,"  said  hd^  "  wnat  say  you  of  thi% 


.88 


THE  HISTORY 


drink;  may  one  make  a  libation  out  of  it  V  Upon  bein  iM 
that  there  was  only  enough  for  one  dose:  "At  least,"  con- 
tinued he, "  we  may  say  our  prayers  to  the  gods,  as  it  is  our 
duty,  and  implore  them  to  make  our  exit  from  this  world, 
and  our  last  stage  happy ;  which  is  what  I  most  ardently  beg 
of  them."  After  having  spoken  these  words,  he  kept  silence 
for  some  time,  and  then  drank  off  the  whole  draught,  with  an 
amazing  tranquillity  and  serenity  of  aspect,  not  to  be  express- 
ed or  conceived. 

Till  then,  his  friends,  with  great  violence  to  themselves, 
had  refrained  from  tear*s;  but,  after  he  had  drunk  the  potion, 
they  were  no  longer  their  own  masters,  and  wept  abundantly. 
Apollodorus,  who  had  been  in  tears  during  almost  the  whole 
conversation,  began  then  to  raise  great  cries,  and  to  lament, 
with  such  excessive  grief,  as  pierced  the  hearts  of  all  that 
were  present.  Socrates  alone  remained  unmoved,  and  even 
reproved  his  friends,  though  with  his  usual  mildness  and 
good  nature. 

"  What  are  you  doing :"  said  he,  to  them.  "  I  admire  at 
you !  Oh !  what  is  become  of  your  virtue  ?  Was  it  not  for 
this,  I  sent  away  the  women,  that  they  might  not  fall  into 
these  weaknesses :  for  I  have  always  heard,  that  we  ought  to 
die  peaceably,  and  blessing  the  gods.  Be  at  ease,  I  beg  you, 
and  show  more  constancy  and  resolution."  He  then  obliged 
them  to  restrain  their  tears. 

In  the  mean  time,  he  kept  walking  to  and  fro ;  and  when 
he  found  his  legs  grow  weary,  he  lay  down  upon  his  back, 
as  he  had  been  directed.  The  poison  then  operated  more 
and  more. 

When  Socrates  found  it  began  to  gain  upon  the  heart,  un- 
covering his  face,  which  had  been  covered,  without  doubt  to 
prevent  any  thing  from  disturbing  him  in  his  last  moments, 
"  Crito,"  said  he,  "  we  owe  a  cock  to  Esculapius ;  discharge 
that  vow  for  me,  and  pray  do  not  forget  it."  Soon  after  which, 
he  breathed  his  last.  Crito  went  to  the  body,  and  closed  his 
mouth  and  eyes. 

Such,  was  the  end  of  Socrates,  in  the  first  year  of  the  nine- 
ty-fifth Olympiad,  and  the  seventieth  of  his  age. 

It  was  not  till  some  time  after  the  death  of  this  great  man, 
that  the  people  of  Athens  perceived  their  mistake,  and  began 
to  repent  of  it ;  their  hatred  being  satisfied,  their  prejudices 
expired ;  and  time  having  given  them  an  opportunity  for  re- 
flection, the  notorious  injustice  of  the  sentence  appeared  in 
all  its  horrors.  Nothing  was  heard  throughout  the  city,  but 
discourses  in  favour  of  Socrates.  The  Academy,  the  Lycaeum, 
^ivate  houses,  public  walks,  and  market  places,  seemed  still 


OF  GREECE. 


1S9 


to  re-echo  the  sound  of  his  loved  voice.  "  Here,"  said  they,  , 
*  he  formed  our  youth,  and  taught  our  children  to  love  their 
country,  and  to  honour  their  parents.  In  this  place,  he  gave 
us  his  admirable  lessons,  and  sometimes  made  us  seasonable 
reproaches,  to  engage  us  more  warmly  in  the  pursuit  of  vir- 
tue. Alas  !  how  have  we  rewarded  him,  for  such  important 
services  !" 

Athens  was  in  universal  mourning  and  consternation.  The 
schools  were  shut  up,  and  all  exercises  suspended. 

The  accusers  were  called  to  account  for  the  innocent  blood 
they  had  caused  to  be  shed.  Melitus  was  condemned  to  die, 
and  the  rest  banished.  Plutarch  observes,  that  those  who 
had  any  share  in  this  atrocious  act,  were  in  such  abomination 
among  the  citizens,  that  no  one  would  give  them  fire,  answer 
them  any  question,  nor  go  into  the  same  bath  with  them,  lest 
they  should  be  polluted  by  touching  it ;  which  drove  them 
into  such  despair,  that  many  of  them  killed  themselves. 

The  Athenians,  not  contented  with  having  punished  his 
accusers,  caused  a  statue  of  brass  to  be  erected  to  him,  of  the 
workmanship  of  the  celebrated  Lysippus,  and  placed  it  in 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  parts  of  the  city.  Their  respect 
and  gratitude  rose  even  to  a  religious  veneration :  they  dedi- 
cated a  chapel  to  him,  as  to  a  hero  and  a  demigod ;  which 
they  called  the  Chapel  of  Socrates. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
From  the  Death  of  Socrates^  to  the  Death  of  Epaminondaa, 

Hitherto,  we  have  pursued  the  Athenians,  both  in  their 
successes  and  their  defeats,  with  peculiar  attention:  while 
they  took  the  lead  in  the  affairs  of  Greece,  it  was  necessary 
to  place  them  on  the  fore-ground  of  the  picture ;  but  now  we 
must  change  the  scene;  and,  leaving  the  Athenians  acting  an 
obscure  part,  go  to  those  states  which  successively  took  the 
lead  after  their  downfall. 

Sparta  seems  to  be  the  first  state,  now,  that  gave  laws  to 
the  rest  of  the  Greeks  :  their  old  jealousies  began  to  revive 
against  the  petty  states  which  had  formerly  sided  against 
them ;  and  the  Eleans  were  the  lirst  upon  whom  they  fell, 
under  a  pretence,  that  they  were  not  admittea,  by  that  state, 
to  the  Olympic  games,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  Grecians. 

Having  formally  declared  war,  and  being  upon  the  point  of 
plundering  the  city  of  Elis,  they  were  taken  into  the  alliance 
of  Sparta ;  and  the  conquerors  now  assumed  and  enjoyed  the 
title  of  the  protectors  and  arbitrators  of  Greece.    Soon  afl^r- 


190 


THE  HISTORY 


wards,  Agesilaiis  (the  second)  who  was  chosen  king  of  Sparta, 
was  sent  into  Asia  with  an  army,  under  pretence  of  freeing 
the  Grecian  cities :  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  Tissa- 
phernes,near  the  river  Pactolus;  where  he  forced  the  ene- 
my's camp,  and  found  considerable  plunder. 

This  success  induced  the  Persian  monarch,  instead  of  meet- 
ing Agesilaus  openly  in  the  field,  to  subvert  his  interest  among 
the  Grecian  states, by  the  power  of  bribery:  indeed,  this  con- 
federacy was  now  so  weakened,  its  concord  and  unanimity  so 
totally  destroyed,  that  they  were  open  to  every  offer:  the  love 
of  money  was  now  rooted  in  their  affections;  and  the  Spar- 
tans were  the  only  people  that,  for  a  while,  seemed  to  disdain 
it.  But  the  contagion  still  spreading,  even  they,  at  last,  yielded 
to  its  allurements;  and  every  man  sought  his  own  emolument, 
without  attending  to  the  good  of  his  country. 

The  Thebans,  as  they  were  the  first  gained  over  to  the 
Persian  interest,  so  they  were  the  most  active  in  promoting 
it.  To  strengthen  their  alliance,  they  sent  ambassadors  to 
the  Athenians,  with  a  long  representation  of  the  present  pos- 
ture of  affairs,  wherein  they  artfully  insinuated  their  zeal  and 
affection  to  their  state :  from  thence,  they  took  occasion  to 
inveigh  against  th3  tyranny  of  Sparta ;  and  concluded  with 
telling  them,  that  now  was  the  time  to  throw  off  the  yoke, 
and  to  recover  their  former  splendour  and  authority.  1  he 
Athenians,  though  they  had  no  share  of  the  Persian  money, 
needed  not  many  arguments  to  engage  them  in  a  rupture  ot 
this  kind,  for  which  they  had  been  long  waiting  a  fit  oppor- 
tunity. .    «      .       •  1 

Agesilaus,  who  had  carried  on  the  war  in  Persia  with  sue 
cessj  received  news  of  the  war  having  again  broken  out  m 
Greece,  with  orders,  at  the  same  time,  for  him  to  return 
home.  He  had  set  his  heart  upon  the  entire  conquest  of 
Persia,  and  was  preparing  to  march  farther  into  the  country; 
but,  such  was  his  deference  to  the  laws,  and  such  his  submis- 
sion to  the  Ephori,  that  he  instantly  obeyed  their  mandate,  but 
kft  four  thousand  men  in  Asia,  to  maintain  his  successes  there. 
The  Spartans,  however,  could  not  wait  his  arrival:  they 
found  confederacies  thicken  on  their  hands,  and  they  were 
ready  to  be  attacked  on  all  sides.  The  Athenians,  Argives, 
Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Eubceans,  joined  against  them,  and 
made  up  a  body  of  twenty-four  thousand  men:  both  sides  en- 
camped near  Sicyon,  at  a  small  distance  from  each  other ; 
and  soon  came  to  a  regular  engagement.  The  Spartan  allies, 
at  first,  were  entirely  routed ;  but  the  Spartans  themselves 
turned  the  scale  of  victory,  by  their  single  valour,  and  came 
off  conquerors,  with  the  loss  of  but  eight  men. 


OF  GREECE. 


191 


This  victory,  however,  was,  in  some  measure,  overbalanced, 
by  a  loss  at  sea,  which  the  Spartans  sustained  near  Cnidus. 
Conon,  the  Athenian  general,  being  appointed  to  command 
the  Persian  fleet  against  them,  took  fifty  of  their  ships,  and 
pursued  the  rest  into  port.  Agesilaus,  on  the  other  hand, 
gained  a  considerable  victory  over  the  Athenians  and  their 
allies,  upon  the  plains  of  Coronea.  Thus,  was  the  war  con- 
tinued by  furious  but  undecisive  engagements,  in  which  nei- 
ther side  was  a  gainer ;  and,  in  this  manner,  did  the  Spartans 
maintain  themselves  and  their  allies,  without  any  considera- 
ble increase  or  diminution  of  their  power. 

In  this  general  shock,  the  Athenians  seemed,  for  a  while,  to 
recover  their  former  spirit.  Being  assisted  by  Persian  money, 
and  conducted  by  Conon,  an  excellent  general,  they  took  the 
field  with  ardour,  and  even  rebuilt  the  walls  of  their  city. 
From  the  mutual  jealousies  of  these  petty  states,  all  were 
weakened,  and  the  Persian  monarch  became  arbitrator  of 
Greece.  In  this  manner,  after  a  fluctuation  of  successes  and 
intrigues,  all  pai-ties  began  to  grow  tired  of  a  war,  and  a  peace 
ensued,  in  the  second  year  of  the  98th  Olympiad  ;*  which, 
from  the  many  stipulations  in  favour  of  Persia,  Plutarch 
terms,  "  The  reproach  and  ruin  of  Greece." 

The  Spartans,  thus  freed  from  the  terrors  of  a  powerful 
foreign  enemy,  went  on  to  spread  terror  among  the  petty  states 
of  Greece.  They  gave  peremptory  orders  to  the  Mantineans 
to  throw  down  their  walls,  and  compelled  them  to  obedience. 
They  obliged  the  Corinthians  to  withdraw  the  garrison  from 
Argosi ;  and  some  other  little  states  they  treated  with  an  air 
of  superiority,  which  plainly  marked,  that  they  expected  obe- 
dience. They  marched  also  against  the  Olynthians,  who  had 
lately  grown  into  power,  and  effectually  subdued  them.  They 
interposed,  likewise,  in  a  domestic  quarrel  which  was  carried 
on  at  Thebes.  Phaebides  having  seized  upon  the  citadel,  they 
turned  him  out,  and  placed  a  garrison  of  their  own  in  that 
fortress.  They  then  procured  articles  of  accusation  to  be 
exhibited  against  Ismenias,  his  antagonist,  for  having  taken 
money  of  the  Persians,  and  holding  intelligence  with  them ; 
and  for  having  been  a  principal  promoter  of  their  intestine 
broils :  upon  which,  he  underwent  a  formal  trial,  before  the 
commissioners  deputed  from  Sparta,  and  one  from  eat  h  of  the 
other  great  cities  of  Greece ;  and  was  condemned  to  death. 

Thus,  having  secured  Thebes,  and,  by  a  tedious  war,  hum- 
bled the  Olynthians,  they  went  on  to  chastise  the  Philiasians, 

♦  An  Olympiad  is  a  certain  space  of  time  (four  years)  which  elapsed  bet%veen  tlie  cele 
bration  of  Uie  Olympic  games.    The  first  Olympiad  occurred  779  years  before  Christ,  ing 
*2  before  the  building  of  Rome. 


192 


THE  HISTORY 


for  having  abused  some  exiles,  that  had  been  restored  by  the 
orders  of  Sparta.  In  this  manner,  they  continued  distribut- 
ing tlieir  orders,  with  pride  and  severity :  no  state  of  Greece 
was  able  to  oppose  their  authority ;  and,  under  the  colour  of 
executing  justice,  they  were  hourly  paving  the  way  to  su 
preme  command.  But,  in  the  midst  of  this  security,  they 
were  disturbed  by  an  unexpected  alarm. 

The  Thebans  had,  for  four  years  since  the  seizing  of  their 
citadel,  submitted  to  the  Spartan  yoke ;  but  they  now  took  oc- 
casion,  by  a  very  desperate  attempt,  to  throw  it  off;  for  which 
purpose,  there  was  a  secret  correspondence  carried  on  be- 
tween the  most  considerable  of  the  exiles  of  Athens,  and 
those  who  were  well  affected  to  them  in  Thebes ;  and  mea- 
sures were  conducted  between  them,  by  Phyllidas,  secretary 
to  the  Theban  governors ;  by  whose  contrivance,  a  competent 
numlxjr  of  exiles  were  to  be  introduced  into  the  city ;  and 
Charon,  a  man  of  the  first  rank  there,  offered  his  house  for 
Iheir  reception. 

The  day  being  fixed,  they  set  out  from  Athens  ;  and  twelve 
of  the  most  active  and  resolute  among  them,  were  detached, 
to  enter  the  city;  the  rest  remaining  at  a  proper  distance  to 
wait  the  event.  The  first  that  offered  himself,  was  Pelopidas, 
who  was  young  and  daring,  and  had  been  very  zealous  in  en- 
couraging the  design ;  and,  by  the  share  he  had  in  it,  gave  a 
sufficient  earnest  of  what  might  be  further  expected  from  him, 
in  the  service  of  his  country.  The  next  man  of  consequence, 
was  Mellon,  who,  by  some,  is  said  to  have  first  projected  the 
scheme  with  Phyllidas. 

These  two,  with  their  ten  associates,  dressed  themselves 
like  peasants,  and  beat  about  the  fields  with  dogs  and  hunt- 
ing-poles, as  in  search  of  game.  Having  thus  passed  unex- 
pected, and  conveyed  themselves  into  the  city,  they  met  at 
Charon's  house,  as  the  general  rendezvous ;  where  they  were 
soon  afterwards  joined  by  thirty-six  more  of  their  confeder- 
ates. It  was  concerted,  that  Phyllidas  should,  on  that  day, 
give  a  great  entertainment  to  Archias  and  Philip,  the  two 
governors  who  were  appointed  by  the  Spartans ;  and,  to  make 
it  the  more  complete,  he  had  engaged  to  provide  some  of  the 
finest  women  in  the  town,  to  give  them  a  meeting. 

Matters  being  thus  prepared,  the  associates  divided  them- 
selves into  two  bands ;  one  of  which,  led  by  Charon  and  Mel- 
lon, were  to  attack  Archias  and  his  company;  and,  having 
put  on  women's  clothes  over  their  armour,  with  pine  and 
poplar  over  their  heads,  to  shade  their  faces,  they  took  their 
opportunity,  when  the  guests  were  well  heated  with  wine,  to 
enter  tlie  room,  and  immediately  stabbed  Archias  and  Philip, 


OF  GREECE. 


193 


with  such  others  of  the  company,  as  were  pointed  out  to  them 
by  Phyllidas. 

A  little  before  this  execution,  Archias  received  an  express 
from  Athens,  with  all  the  particulars  of  the  conspiracy ;  and 
the  courier  conjured  him,  in  the  name  of  the  person  who 
wrote  the  letters,  that  he  should  read  them  forthwith, for  that 
they  contained  matter  of  great  importance.  But  he  laid  them 
by  unopened ;  and,  with  a  smile,  said,  "  Business  to-morrow  ;" 
which  words,  upon  that  occasion,  grew  into  a  proverb.  The 
other  band,  headed  by  Pelopidas  and  Damoclides,  went  to  at- 
tack Leontiades,  who  was  at  home,  and  in  bed. 

They  rushed  into  his  house,  by  surprise;  but  he,  soon 
taking  the  alarm,  leaped  up,  and,  with  his  sword  in  his  hand, 
received  them  at  his  chamber  door,  and  stabbed  Cephisodo- 
ras,  who  was  the  first  man  that  attempted  to  enter.  Pelopi- 
das was  the  next  who  encountered  him ;  and,  after  a  long  and 
difficult  dispute,  killed  him.  Fn^m  thence,  they  went  in  pur- 
suit of  Hy pates,  his  friend  and  neighbour,  and  despatched 
him  likewise :  after  which,  they  joined  the  other  band,  and 
sent  to  hasten  the  exiles  left  by  them  in  Attica. 

The  whole  city  was,  by  this  time,  filled  with  terror  and  con- 
fusion; the  houses  full  of  lights ;  and  the  inhabitants  running 
to  and  fro  in  the  streets,  in  a  wild  distracted  manner,  and 
waiting  impatiently  for  day  light,  that  they  might  distinguish 
their  friends  from  their  foes,  seemed  undetermined  'what 
course  to  take. 

Early  in  the  morning,  the  exiles  came  in,  armed,  and  Pe- 
lopidas appeared  with  his  party,  in  a  general  assembly  of  the 
people,  encompassed  by  the  priests,  carrying  garlands  in  their 
hands,  proclaiming  liberty  to  the  Thebans  in  general,  and  ex- 
horting them  to  fight  for  their  gods  and  their  country ;  for, 
though  they  had  made  such  a  prosperous  beginning,  the  most 
difficult  part  still  remained,  whilst  the  citadel  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Spartans,  with  a  garrison  of  fifteen  hundred  men, 
besides  a  great  number  of  citizens  and  others,  who  had  fled 
to  them  for  protection,  and  declared  themselves  on  their  side. 

Next  morning,  the  Athenians  sent  five  thousand  foot,  and 
two  hundred  horse,  to  the  assistance  of  Pelopidas ;  several 
other  bodies  of  troops  also  came  in  from  all  the  cities  of 
Boeotia,  so  that  the  citadel  being  hemmed  round,  and  des- 
pairing of  success  without,  surrendered  at  discretion. 

The  Thebans  having  thus  acquired  their  freedom,  the  Spar- 
tans were  resolved,  at  any  rate,  to  take  the  lead  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece,  and,  having  incensed  these  beyond  measure,  at 
tempted  to  seize  upon  the  Pyrxus,  and  thus  make  the  Athe- 
eiians  their  irreconcileable  enemies.     Agesilaus  was  pitched 


1 

i 


194 


IHE  HISTOKY 


OF  GREECE. 


195 


UDon  to  command  the  army  which  was  to  humble  the  Gre 
c?an  states.     His  name  struck  a  terror  into  the  1  hebans,  and 
the  forces,  which  amounted  to  nearly  twenty  thousand  men, 

increased  their  fears.  „„„„i. 

The  Thebans,  therefore,  ijistead  of  attempting  to  attack, 
^ere  contented  to  stand  upon  their  defence,  and  took  posses, 
sion  of  a  hill  near  the  city.  Agesilaus  detached  a  party  of 
Ught  armed  men,  to  provoke  them  to  come  down  and  give 
him  battle,  which  they  declining,  he  drew  out  his  whole 
fo"es,  in  order  to  attack  them.  Chabrias,  who  commanded 
the  mercenaries  on  the  part  of  the  Thebans  ordered  his  men 
to  present  themselves,  knd  keep  their  ranks  ,n  close  order, 
with  their  shields  laid  down  at  their  feet,  and  their  spears 
Advanced,  and  with  one  leg  put  forward,  and  the  knee  upon 

**' ASla^sffinding  them  prepared  in  this  manner  to  recerve 
him,  and  that  they  stood,  as  it  were,  m  defiance  of  him, 
Cught  fit  to  withdraw  his  army,  and  contented  himself  with 
ravaging  the  country.    This  was  looked  upon  as  an  extraordi- 
nary strttagem  ;  and  Chabrias  valued  himself  so  much  upon 
it  that  he  procured  his  statue  to  be  erected  m  that  posture. 
Thus,  through  a  succession  of  engagements,  both  by  sea 
and  land,  the  Spartans,  having  provoked  a  powerful  confede- 
racy  grew  every  day  weaker,  and  their  enemies  more  daring. 
The  Thebans  continually  grew  bolder;  and,  instead  of  con- 
tinuing to  defend  themselves  with  difficulty,  attacked  the  ene- 
my wi^h  courage  and  success.     Though  the  battles  fought 
Ken  these  ftates,  were  neither  -gular  nor  decisive,  yet 
thev  were  such  as  served  to  raise  the  courage  ol  the  1  hebans, 
'  to  gaTn  them  confidence,  and  to  form  them  for  those  great 
m,de«akings  which  were  shortly  to  follow.     Pelopidas,  who 
headed  them  at  the  battle  of  Tanagra,  slew  the  Spartan  com- 

mander,  with  his  own  hand.  

At  the  battle  of  Tegyra,  with  very  unequal  forces,  he  put 
a  laige  body  of  the  enemy  to  rout.  He  himself  commanded 
a  baualion  of  the  Theban  army,  distinguished  l^X  th«  "ame 
of  the  Sacred  Van.  They  were  as  remarkable  for  theirfiddi- 
ty  to  each  other,  as  for  their  strength  and  courage  :  they  were 
linked  by  the  bonds  of  common  friendship;  and  were  sworn 
to  stand  b.  each  other,  in  the  most  dangerous  extremities 
Thus  united,  they  became  invincible,  and  generally  turned 
tie  victory  in  their  favour,  for  a  successio,.  of  years  until 
they  were  at  last  cut  down,  as  one  man,  by  the  Macedonian 

•''a  pere"of';iSontinuance  followed  these  successes  of 
Uie  Thebans,  but  they  soon  fell  into  tumults  and  seditions 


again.  The  inhabitants  of  Xacinthus  and  Corcyra,  having 
expelled  their  magistrates,  put  themselves  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Athens,  and  repulsed  the  Spartans,  who  attempted  to 
restore  their  magistrates,  by  force. 

About  the  same  time,  the  inhabitants  of  Plataea,  applying 
to  their  old  friends,  the  Athenians,  for  their  protection  and 
alliance, the  Thebans  took  offence, and  demolished  the  town; 
and  soon  afterwards,  did  the  same  by  Thespiae.  The  Athe- 
nians were  so  highly  incensed  at  the  treatment  of  those  two 
cities,  which  had  deserved  so  well  of  the  common  cause  in 
the  Persian  war,  that  they  would  act  no  longer  in  conjunction 
with  them  ;  and  upon  their  separating  from  them,  the  affairs 
of  Greece  took  a  new  and  unexpected  turn. 

It  now  began  to  appear,  that  the  Thebans  were  growing 
into  power ;  and  while  Sparta  and  Athens  were  weakening 
each  other  by  mutual  contests,  this  state,  which  had  enjoyed 
all  the  emoluments,  without  any  of  the  expenses,  of  the  war, 
was  every  day  growing  more  vigorous  and  independent.  The 
Thebans,  who  now  began  to  take  the  lead  in  the  affairs  oi 
Greece,  were  naturally  a  hardy  and  robust  people,  of  slow 
intellect,  and  strong  constitution. 

It  was  a  constant  maxim  with  them,  to  side  either  with 
Athens  or  Sparta,  in  their  mutual  contests ;  and  which  so- 
ever they  inclined  to,  they  were  generally  of  weight  enough 
to  turn^  the  balance.  However,  they  had  hitherto  made  no 
further  use  of  that  weight,  than  to  secure  themselves ;  but 
the  spirit  which  now  appeared  among  them,  was  first  im- 
planted by  Pelopidas,  their  deliverer  from  the  Spartan  yoke; 
but  still  further  carried  to  its  utmost  height,  by  Epaminon 
das,  who  now  began  to  figure  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Epaminondas  was  one  of  those  few  exalted  characters,  with 
scarcely  any  vice,  and  almost  every  virtue,  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  rest  of  mankind.  Though,  in  the  beginning,  pos- 
sessed of  every  quality  necessary  for  the  service  of  the  state, 
he  chose  to  lead  a  private  life,  employed  in  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy, and  showing  an  example  of  the  most  rigid  observance 
of  all  its  doctrines.  Truly  a  philosopher,  and  poor  out  of 
taste,  he  despised  riches,  without  affecting  any  reputation 
from  that  contempt;  and,  if  Justin  maybe  believed,  he  covet- 
ed glory  as  little  as  he  did  money.  It  was  always  against  his 
will  that  commands  were  conferred  upon  him;  and  he  be- 
haved himself  in  them  in  such  a  manner,  as  did  more  honour 
to  dignities,  than  dignities  to  him. 

Though  poor  himself,  and  withbut  any  estate,  his  very 
poverty,  by  drawing  upon  him  the  esteem  and  confidence  of 
the  rich,  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  doing  good  to  others 


196 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


19' 


One  of  his  friends  being  in  great  necessity,  Epaminondat 
sent  him  to  a  very  rich  citizen,  with  orders  to  ask  him  for  a 
thousand  crowns,  in  his  name :  that  rich  man  coming  to  his 
house,  to  know  his  motive  for  directing  his  friend  to  him, 
upon  such  an  errand,  "  Why,'*  replied  Epaminondas,  "it  is 
because  this  honest  man  is  in  want,  and  you  are  rich." 

Fond  of  leisure,  which  he  devoted  to  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy, his  darling  passion,  he  shunned  public  employments,  and 
made  no  interest,  but  to  exclude  himself  from  them.  His 
moderation  concealed  him  so  well,  that  he  lived  obscure,  and 
almost  unknown.  His  merit,  however,  discovered  him.  He 
was  taken  from  his  solitude  by  force,  to  be  placed  at  the  head 
of  armies ;  and  he  demonstrated,  that  philosophy,  though 
'generally  in  contempt  with  those  who  aspire  at  the  glory  of 
arms,  is  wonderfully  useful  in  forming  heroes.  It  was  a  great 
advance  towards  conquering  the  enemy,  to  know  how  to  con- 
quer one*s  self. 

In  this  school,  anciently,  were  taught,  the  great  maxims  of 
true  policy;  the  rules  of  every  kind  of  duty  ;  the  motives  for 
a  due  discharge  of  them ;  what  we  owe  our  country ;  the 
right  use  of  authority ;  wherein  true  courage  consists  ;  in  a 
word,  the  qualities  that  form  the  good  citizen,  statesman,  and 
great  captain;  and  in  all  these,  Epaminondas  excelled.  He 
possessed  all  the  ornaments  of  the  mind.  He  had  the  talent 
of  speaking  in  perfection ;  and  was  well  versed  in  the  most 
sublime  sciences.  But  a  modest  reserve  threw  a  veil  over  all 
these  excellent  qualities,  which  still  augmented  their  value  ; 
and  of  which  he  knew  not  what  it  was  to  be  ostentatious 
Spintharus,  in  giving  his  character,  said,  that  he  never  had 
met  with  a  man  who  knew  more,  and  spoke  less. 

Such,  was  the  general,  appointed  to  command  the  Theban 
army,  and  act  in  conjunction  with  Pelopidas,  with  whom  he 
had  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  disinterested  friendship. 
This  state  being  left  out  in  the  general  treaty  of  peace,  and 
thus  having  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  confederated  against 
it,  appeared  under  the  utmost  consternation  ;  and  all  Greece 
looked  up^n  it  as  lost  and  undone.  The  Spartans  ordered 
levies  to  be  made, in  all  parts  of  Greece,  that  sided  with  them; 
and  Cleombrotus,  their  general,  marched  towards  the  fron- 
tiers of  Hocotia,  secure  of  victory. 

Willing,  however,  to  give  his  hostilities  an  air  of  justice, 
he  sent  to  demand  of  the  Thebans,  that  they  should  restore 
to  their  liberties,  the  cities  which  they  had  usurped  ;  that 
they  should  rebuild  those  that  they  had  demolished  before, 
and  make  restitution  for  all  their  former  wrongs.  To  this,  it 
was  replied,  "  that  the  Thebans  were  accountabk  to  none  but 


heaven,  for  their  conduct."  Nothing  now  remained,  on  both 
sides,  but  to  prepaue  for  action.  Epaminondas  immediately 
raised  all  the  troops  he  could,  and  began  his  march.  His 
army  did  not  amount  to  six  thousand  men-,  and  the  enemy 
had  above  four  times  that  number. 

As  several  bad  omens  were  urged  to  prevent  his  setting 
out,  he  replied  only  by  a  verse  from  Homer,  of  which  the 
sense  is.  There  is  but  one  good  omen  ;  to  fight  for  one's  country. 
However,  to  re-assure  the  soldiers,  by  nature  superstitious, 
and  whom  he  observed  to  be  discouraged,  he  instructed  sev- 
eral persons  to  come  from  different  places,  and  report  augu- 
ries and  omens  in  his  favour,  which  revived  the  spirits  and 
hop^s  of  his  troops. 

Epaminondas  had  wisely  taken  care  to  secure  a  pass  by 
which  Cleombrotus  might  have  shortened  his  march  consider- 
ably. The  latter,  after  having  taken  a  large  compass,  ar- 
rived at  Leuctra,  a  small  town  of  Bceoti-a,  between  Plataea  and 
Thespiae.  Both  parties  consulted  whether  they  should  give 
battle;  which  Cleombrotus  resolved,  by  the  advice  of  all  his 
officers ;  who  represented  to  him,  that,  if  he  declined  fighting 
with  such  a  superiority  of  troops,  it  would  confirm  the  cur- 
rent report,  that  he  secretly  favoured  the  Thebans. 

The  latter  had  an  essential  reason  for  hastening  a  battle, 
before  the  arrival  of  the  troops,  which  the  enemy  daily  ex- 
pected However,  the  six  generals,  who  formed  the  council 
of  war,  differed  in  their  sentiments ;  the  seventh,  who  was 
Epaminondas,  came  in  very  good  time,  to  join  the  three  that 
were  for  fighting;  and  his  opinion  carrying  the  question,  th» 
battle  was  resolved  upon. 

The  two  armies  were  very  unequal  in  number  :  that  of  the 
Laced3em»nians,  as  has  been  said,  consisted  of  twenty-four 
thousand  foot,  and  sixteen  hundred  horse ;  the  Thebans  had 
only  six  thousand  foot,  and  four  hundred  horse,  but  all  choice 
troops,  animated  by  their  experience  in  war,  and  determined 
to  conquer  or  die. 

The  Lacedaemonian  cavalry,  composed  of  men  picked  up 
by  chance,  without  valour  and  ill  disciplined,  was  as  much 
inferior  to  their  enemies  in  courage,  as  superior  in  number^ 
The  infantry  could  not  be  depended  on,  except  the  Lacedae- 
monians ;  the  allies,  as  has  been  said,  having  engaged  in  the 
war  with  reluctance,  because  they  did  not  approve  its  motive ; 
and  being,  besides,  dissatisfied  with  the  Lacedaemonians. 

The  ability  of  the  generals,  on  each  side,  supplied  the  place 
of  numerous  armies,  especially  the  ability  of  the  Theban  gen- 
eral, who  was  the  most  accomplished  soldier  of  his  time.  He 
was  supported  by  Pelopidas,  at  the  head  of  the  sacred  bat- 


VJS 


IHE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


199 


It 


f 


Ulion,  composed  of  three  hundred  Thebans,  united  in  a  strict 
friendship  and  affection,  and  engag^ed,  under  a  particulai'  oath, 
never  to  Hy,  but  to  defend  each  other  to  the  last. 

Upon  the  day  of  battle,  the  two  armies  drew  up  on  a  plain. 
Clcombrotus  was  upon  the  right,  at  the  head  of  a  body  con- 
sisting of  Lacedaemonians,  on  whom  he  confided  most,  and 
whose  files  were  twelve  deep.  To  take  the  advantage,  which 
his  superiority  of  horse  gave  him,  in  an  open  country,  he 
posted  them  in  front  of  the  Lacedaemonians.  Archidamus, 
the  son  of  Agesilaus,  was  at  the  head  of  the  allies,  who  form- 
ed the  left  wing. 

Epaminondas,  who  resolved  to  charge  with  his  left,  which 
he  commanded  in  person,  strengthened  it  with  the  choice  of 
his  heavy  armed  troops,  whom  he  drew  up  fifty  deep ;  the 
second  battalion  was  upon  his  left,  and  closed  the  wing  The 
rest  of  his  infantry  were  posted  upon  his  right,  in  an  oblique 
line,  which,  the  further  it  extended,  was  the  more  distant 
from  the  enemy.  By  this  uncommon  disposition,  his  design 
was  to  cover  his  flank  on  the  right ;  to  keep  off  his  right 
wing,  as  a  kind  of  reserved  body,  that  he  might  not  hazard 
the  event  of  the  battle  upon  the  weakest  part  of  his  army ; 
and  to  begin  the  action  with  his  left  wing,  where  his  best 
troops  were  posted,  to  turn  the  whole  weight  of  the  battle 
upon  Cleombrotus,  and  the  Spartans.  He  was  assured,  that, 
if  he  could  penetrate  the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx,  the  rest  of 
the  army  would  soon  be  put  to  the  rout.  As  for  his  horse, 
he  disposed  them  after  the  enemy's  example,  in  the  front  of 
his  left. 

The  action  began  with  the  cavalry.  As  the  Thebans  were 
better  mounted,  and  braver  troops  than  the  Lacedaemonian 
horse,  the  latter  were  not  long  before  they  were  brokert,  and 
driven  upon  the  infantry,  which  they  put  into  some  confusion. 
Epaminondas  followed  his  horse  close,  marched  swiftly  up  to 
Cleombrotus,  and  fell  upon  his  phalanx  with  all  the  weight 
of  his  heavy  battalion.  The  latter,  to  make  a  diversion,  de- 
tached a  body  of  troops,  with  orders  to  take  Epaminondas 
in  flank,  and  to  surround  him. 

Pelopidas,  on  seeing  that  movement,  advanced,  with  in- 
credible speed  and  boldness,  at  the  head  of  the  sacred  bat- 
talion, to  prevent  the  enemy's  design ;  and  flanked  Cleom- 
brotus himself,  who,  by  that  sudden  and  unexpected  attack^ 
was  put  into  disorder.  The  battle  was  very  fierce  and  obsti- 
nate; and,  whilst  Cleombrotus  could  act,  the  victory  con- 
tinued in  suspense.  But,  when  he  fell  dead  with  his  wounds, 
the  Thebans,  to  complete  the  victory,  and  the  Lacedaemoni* 
ans,  to  avoia  the  shame  of  abandoning  the  body  of  their 


i 


king,  redoubled  their  efforts,  and  a  great  slaughter  ensued, 
on  both  sides. 

The  Spartans  fought  with  so  much  fury  about  the  body^ 
that  at  length  they  gained  their  point,  and  carried  it  off.  Ani- 
mated by  so  glorious  an  advantage,  they  prepared  to  return 
to  the  charge,  which  perhaps  would  have  proved  successful, 
had  the  allies  seconded  their  ardour  :  but  the  left  wing  seeing 
the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx  broken,  and  believing  all  lost,  es- 
pecially when  they  heard  that  the  king  was  dead,  took  to  flight, 
and  drew  off  the  rest  of  the  army.  Epaminondas  followed 
them  vigorously,  and  killed  a  great  number  in  the  pursuit. 
The  Thebans  remained  masters  of  the  field  of  battle,  erected 
a  trophy,  and  permitted  the  enemy  to  bury  their  dead. 

The  Lacedaemonians  had  never  received  such  a  blow.  The 
most  bloody  defeat,  till  then,  had  scarcely  ever  cost  them  more 
than  four  or  five  hundred  of  their  citizens.  Here,  they  lost 
four  thousand,  of  whom  one  thousand  were  Lacedaemonians, 
and  four  hundred  Spartans,  out  of  seven  hundred  that  were 
in  the  battle.  The  Thebans  had  only  three  hundred  men 
killed ;  among  whom,  were  four  of  their  citizens. 

The  city  of  Sparta  was  at  that  time  celebrating  the  Gym- 
nastic games ;  and  was  full  of  strangers,  brought  thither  by 
curiosity.  When  the  couriers  arrived  from  Leuctra,  with 
the  terrible  news  of  their  defeat,  the  Ephori,  though  perfect- 
ly sensible  of  all  the  consequences,  and  that  the  Spartan  em» 
pire  had  received  a  mortal  wound,  would  not  permit  the  re- 
presentations of  the  theatre  to  be  suspended,  nor  any  change 
in  the  celebration  of  the  festival.  They  sent  to  every  family 
the  names  of  their  relations  who  were  killed,  and  staid  in  the 
theatre  to  see  that  the  dances  and  games  were  continued, 
without  interruption,  to  the  end. 

The  next  morning,  the  loss  of  each  family  being  known, 
the  friends  and  relations  of  those  who  had  died  in  the  battle, 
met  in  the  public  place,  and  saluted  and  embraced  each  other 
with  great  joy  and  serenity  in  their  looks,  whilst  the  others 
kept  themselves  close  in  their  houses ;  or,  if  necessity  obliged 
them  to  go  abroad,  it  was  with  a  sadness  and  dejection  of 
aspect,  which  sensibly  expressed  their  profound  anguish  and 
affliction.  That  difference  was  still  more  remarkable  in  the 
women :  grief,  silence,  tears,  distinguished  those  who  expect- 
ed the  return  of  their  sons ;  but  such  as  had  lost  their  sons, 
were  seen  hurrying  to  the  temple,  to  thank  the  gods,  and  con 
gratulatirig  each  other  upon  their  glory  and  good  fortune. 

One  great  point  under  immediate  consideration,  was,  con- 
cerning those  who  had  fled  out  of  the  battle.  They  were,  by 
tlie  law,  in  that  case,  to  be  degraded  from  all  honour,  and 


200 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


rendered  infamous ;  insomuch,  that  it  was  a  disgrace  to  in- 
termarry with  them :  they  were  to  appear  publicly  in  mean 
and  dirty  habits,  with  patched  and  party-coloured  garments 
and  to  go  half  shaved  ;  and  whoever  met  them  in  the  streets 
might  insult  and  beat  them,  and  they  were  not  to  make  any 
resistance.  This  was  so  severe  a  law,  and  such  numbers  had 
incurred  the  penalties,  many  of  whom  were  of  great  familiej 
and  interest ;  that  they  apprehended  the  execution  of  it  might 
occasion  some  public  commotions ;  besides,  that  these  citi* , 
zens,  such  as  they  were,  could  be  very  ill  spared  at  this  time, 
when  they  wanted  to  recruit  the  army.  •  Under  this  difficulty, 
they  gave  Agesilaus  a  power  even  over  the  laws ;  to  dispense 
with  them ;  to  abrogate  them ;  or  to  enact  such  new  ones,  as 
the  present  exigency  required.  He  would  not  abolish  or 
make  any  variation  in  the  law  itself;  but  made  a  public  de- 
claration, that  it  should  lie  dormant  for  that  single  day,  but 
revive  and  be  in  full  force  again  on  the  morrow ;  and,  by  that 
expedient,  he  saved  the  citizens  from  infamy. 

So  great  a  victory  was  followed  by  instantaneous  eflFects; 
numbers  of  the  Grecian  states  that  had  hitherto  remained 
neuter,  now  declared  in  favour  of  the  conquerors :  and  in- 
creased their  army  to  the  amount  of  seventy  thousand  men. 
Epuminondas  entered  Laconia  with  an  army,  the  twelfth  part 
of  which  were  not  Thebans :  and,  finding  the  country  hither- 
to untouched  by  a  hostile  force,  he  ran  through  it,  with  fire 
and  sword,  destroying  and  plundering  as  far  as  the  river 
Eurotas. 

This  river  was,  at  that  time,  very  much  swoln,  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow ;  and  the  Thebans  found  more  difficulty  in 
passing  it,  than  they  expected,  as  well  from  the  rapidity,  as 
the  extreme  coldness,  of  the  water.  As  Epaminondas  was 
passing  at  the  head  of  his  infantry,  some  of  the  Spartans 
showed  him  to  Agesilaus ;  who,  after  having  attentively  fol- 
lowed and  considered  him  with  his  eyes  a  long  time,  could 
not  help  crying  out,  in  admiration  of  his  valour,  "  Oh !  the 
wonder-working  man  I" 

The  Theban  general,  however,  contented  himself  with 
over-running  the  country,  without  attempting  any  thing  upon 
Sparta ;  and,  entering  Arcadia,  reinstated  it  in  all  its  former 
privileges  and  liberties.  The  Lacedaemonians  had,  some  time 
before,  stripped  the  harmless  natives  of  all  their  possessions 
and  obliged  them  to  take  refuge  among  strangers.  Theii 
country  was  equal  in  extent  to  Laconia,  and  as  fertile  as  the 
best  in  Greece.  Its  ancient  inhabitants,  who  were  dispeised 
in  different  regions  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  Sicily,  on  the  first 
iKUice  giver  them,  returned,  with  incredible  joy,  animated  by 


201 


the  love  of  their  country,  natural  to  all  men ;  and  almost  as 
much  by  the  hatred  of  the  Spartans,  which  the  length  of 
time  had  only  increased.  They  built  themselves  a  city,  which, 
from  the  ancient  name,  was  called  Messene. 

After  performing  such  signal  exploits,  Pelopidas  and  Epa- 
minondas, the  Theban  generals,  once  more  returned  home; 
not  to  share  the  triumph  and  acclamations  of  their  fellow* 
citizens,  but  to  answer  the  accusations  that  were  laid  against 
them:  they  were  now  both  summoned  as  criminals  against 
the  state,  for  having  retained  their  posts  four  months  beyond 
the  time  limited  by  law. 

This  offi^nce  was  capital,  by  the  law  of  Thebes ;  and  those 
who  stood  up  for  the  constitution,  were  very  earnest  in  having 
it  observed  with  punctuality.  Pelopidas  was  the  first  cited 
before  the  tribunal.  He  defended  himself  with  less  force  and 
greatness  of  mind,  than  was  expected  from  a  man  of  his 
character,  by  nature  warm  and  fiery.  That  valour,  haughty 
and  intrepid  in  fight,  forsook  him  b'^fore  his  judges.  His  air 
and  discourse,  which  had  something  timid  and  creeping  in 
it,  denoted  a  man  who  was  afraid  of  death,  and  did  not,  in 
the  least,  incline  the  judges  in  his  favour,  who  acquitted  him, 
not  without  difficulty. 

Epaminondas,  on  the  contrary,  appeared  with  all  the  con- 
fidence of  conscious  innocence :  instead  of  justifying  himself, 
he  enumerated  his  actions :  he  repeated,  in  haughty  terms, 
in  what  manner  he  had  ravaged  Laconia,  re-established  Mes- 
senia,  and  re-united  Arcadia  in  one  body.  He  concluded, 
with  saying,  that  he  should  die  with  pleasure,  if  the  Thebans 
would  renounce  the  sole  glory  of  those  actions  to  him,  and 
declare  that  he  had  done  them  by  his  own  authority,  and 
without  their  participation.  All  the  voices  were  in  his  fa- 
vour, and  he  returned  from  his  trial,  as  he  used  to  return 
from  battle,  with  glory  and  universal  applause. 

Such  dignity  has  true  valour,  that  it,  in  a  manner,  seizes 
the  admiration  of  mankind,  by  force.  This  manner  of  re- 
proaching them,  had  so  good  an  effect,  that  his  enemies  de- 
clined any  further  prosecution ;  and  he,  with  his  colleague, 
were  honourably  acquitted.  His  enemies,  however,  jealous 
of  his  glory,  with  a  design  to  affront  him,  caused  him  to  be 
elected  city  scavenger :  he  accepted  the  place  with  thanks, 
and  asserted,  that,  instead  of  deriving  honour  from  the  office, 
he  would  give  dignity  to  it. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Spartans,  struck  with  consternation 
at  their  late  defeats,  applied  to  the  Athenians  for  succour; 
who,  after  some  hesitation,  determined  to  assist  them  with 
all  their  forces ;  and  a  slight  advantage  the  Spartans  had  gain 


101^ 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


;J03 


I-    •' 


i 


ed  ovci  the  Arcadians,  in  which  they  did  not  lose  a  man,  gave 
a  promising  dawn  of  success.  The  Persian  king,  also,  was 
applied  to  for  assistance  in  the  confederacy  against  Thebes ; 
but  Peiopidas,  undertaking  an  embassy  to  that  court, frustrated 
their  purpose,  and  induced  that  great  monarch  to  stand  neuter. 

Thebes,  being  thus  rid  of  so  powerful  an  enemy,  had  less 
fears  of  withstanding  the  confederacy  of  Sparta  and  Athens ; 
but  a  new  and  unexpected  power  was  now  growing  up  against 
them;  a  power  which  was  one  day  about  to  swallow  up  the 
liberties  of  Greece,  and  give  laws  to  all  mankind. 

Some  years  before  this,  Jason,  the  king  of  Pherae,  was 
chosen  general  of  the  Thessalians,  by  the  consent  of  the  peo- 
ple: he  was  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  about  eight  thousand 
horse,  and  twenty  thousand  heavy  armed  foot,  without  reckon- 
ing light  infantry,  and  might  have  undertaken  any  thing  with 
such  a  body  of  disciplined  and  intrepid  troops,  who  had  an 
entire  confidence  in  the  valour  and  conduct  of  their  com- 
mander. Death  prevent-^d  his  designs :  he  was  assassinated 
by  persons  who  had  conspired  his  destruction. 

His  two  brothers,  Polydorus  «nd  Poliphron,  were  substi- 
tuted in  his  place ;  the  latter  of  whom  killed  the  other,  for  the 
sake  of  reigning  alone,  and  was  soon  afterwards  killed  him- 
self, by  Alexander  of  Pherae ;  who  seized  the  government, 
under  the  pretence  of  revenging  the  death  of  Polydorus,  his 
father.  Against  him,  Peiopidas  was  sent.  The  Theban  gene- 
ral soon  compelled  Alexander  to  make  submission  to  him, 
and  attempted,  by  mild  usage,  to  change  the  natural  brutality 
of  his  disposition.  But  Alexander,  long  addicted  to  a  de- 
bauched life,  and  possessed  of  insatiable  avarice,  secretly 
withdrew  from  all  constraint,  and  resolved  to  seize  an  oppor- 
tunity of  revenge. 

It  was  not  till  some  time  afterwards, that  this  offered.  Peiop- 
idas, being  appointed  ambassador  to  Alexander,  who  was  at 
that  time  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  was  seized  upon, 
and  made  prisoner,  contrary  to  all  the  laws  of  nations  and 
humanity.  It  was  in  vain,  that  the  Thebans  complained  of 
this  infraction;  it  was  in  vain  that  they  sent  a  powerful  army, 
but  heade*^  by  indifferent  generals,  to  revenge  the  insult: 
their  army  returned  without  effect,  and  Alexander  treated  his 
prisoners  with  the  utmost  severity.  It  was  left  for  Epami- 
nondas,  only,  to  bring  the  tyrant  to  reason.  Entering  Thes- 
salia,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  his  name  spread  such 
a  terror,  that  the  tyrant  offered  terms  of  submission,  and  de- 
livered up  Peiopidas  from  prison. 

Peiopidas  was   scarcely  freed  from  confinement,  when  he, 
resell',  f/    to    punis'.   the    tyrant,   for   his   breach    of    faith 


He  led  a  body  of  troops  against  Alexander,  to  a  place  called 
Cynocephalus,  where  a  bloody  battle  ensued,  in  which  the 
Thebans  were  victorious;  but  Peiopidas  was  unfortunately 
slain :  his  countrymen  considered  their  successes  very  dearly 
earned,  which  they  had  obtained  by  his  death  The  lamen- 
tations for  him  were  general ;  his  funeral  was  magnificent, 
and  his  praises  boundless. 

Alexander  himself  was  soon  afterwards  killed,  by  Theba, 
his  wife,  and  her  three  brothers;  who,  long  shocked  at  his 
cruelties,  resolved  to  rid  the  world  of  such  a  monster.  It  is 
said,  that  he  slept  every  night  guarded  by  a  dog,  in  a  cham- 
ber which  was  ascended  by  a  ladder.  Theba  allured  away 
the  dog,  and  covered  the  steps  of  the  ladder  with  wool,  to 
prevent  noise ;  and  then,  with  the  assistance  of  her  brothers, 
stabbed  him  in  several  parts  of  the  body. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  war  between  the  Thebans  and  the 
Spartans,  proceeded  with  unabated  vigour.  The  Thebans 
were  headed  by  their  favourite  general,  Epaminondas ;  the 
Spartans,  by  Agesilaus;  the  only  man  in  Greece  that  was 
then  able  to  oppose  him. 

The  first  attempt  of  Epaminondas,  in  this  campaign,  mark 
ed  his  great  abilities,  and  his  skill  in  the  art  of  war.  Being 
informed  that  Agesilaus  had  begun  his  march,  and  had  left 
but  few  citizens  at  home,  to  defend  Sparta,  he  marched  di- 
rectly thither  by  night,  with  a  design  to  take  the  city  by  sur- 
prise, as  it  had  neither  walls  nor  troops  to  defend  it ;  but 
luckily,  Agesilaus  was  apprised  of  his  design,  and  despatched 
one  of  his  horse,  to  advise  the  city  of  its  danger ;  soon  after- 
wards, arriving,  with  a  powerful  succour,  he  had  scarcely 
entered  the  town,  when  the  Thebans  were  seen  passing  th« 
Eurotas,  and  coming  on  against  the  city. 

Epaminondas,  who  perceived  that  his  design  was  discover- 
ed, thought  it  incumbent  on  him  not  to  retire  without  some 
attempt.  He  therefore  made  his  troops  advance ;  and  using 
valour  instead  of  stratagem,  he  attacked  the  city  at  several 
quarters,  penetrated  as  far  as  the  public  place,  and  seized  that 
part  of  Sparta  which  lay  on  the  near  side  of  the  river.  Agesi- 
laus made  head  every  where,  and  defended  himself  with  much 
more  valour  than  could  be  expected  from  his  years.  He  saw 
that  it  was  not  now  a  time,  as  before,  to  spare  himself,  and  to 
act  only  upon  the  defensive ;  but  that  he  had  need  of  all  his 
courage  and  daring,  and  to  fight  with  all  the  vigour  of  des- 
pair. His  son,  Archidamus,  at  the  head  of  the  Spartan  youth, 
>haved  with  incredible  valour,  wherever  the  danger  was 
greatest ;  and,  with  his  small  troop,  stopped  the  enemy,  and 
opposed  them  on  all  sides. 


204 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE 


205 


if 


A  young  Spartan,  named  Isadas,  distinguished  himself  par- 
ticularly in  this  action.  He  was  very  handsome  in  the  face, 
perfectly  well  shaped,  of  an  advantageous  stature,  and  in  the 
flower  of  his  youth  :  he  had  neither  armour  nor  clotlies  upon 
his  body,  which  shone  with  oil :  he  held  a  spear  in  one  hand, 
and  a  sword  in  the  other.  In  this  condition,  he  quitted  his 
house,  with  the  utmost  eagerness;  and,  breaking  through  the 
press  of  the  Spartans,  threw  himself  upon  the  enemy;  gave 
mortal  wounds  at  every  blow,  and  laid  all  at  his  feet  who  oj)- 
posed  him,  without  receiving  any  hurt  himself. 

Whether  the  enemy  were  dismayed  at  so  astonishing  a 
sight,  or,  says  Plutarch,  the  gods  took  pleasure  in  preserving 
him  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  valour;  it  is  said,  the 
ephori  decreed  him  a  crown,  after  the  battle,  in  honour  of  his 
exploits;  but  afterwards  fined  him  a  thousand  drachms,  for 
having  exposed  himself  to  so  great  a  danger,  without  arms. 

Epaminondas,  thus  failing  in  his  designs,  was  resolved  be- 
fore he  laid  down  his  command,  which  was  near  expiring,  to 
give  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Athenians  battle,  as  they  follow- 
ed him  close  in  the  rear.  The  Greeks  had  never  fought 
among  themselves  with  more  numerous  armies.  The  Lace- 
daemonians consisted  of  more  than  twenty  thousand  foot,  and 
two  thousand  horse :  the  Thebans  of  thirty  thousand  foot, 
and  three  thousand  horse. 

Upon  the  right  wing  of  the  former,  the  Mantineans,  Arca- 
dians, and  Lacedaemonians,  were  posted  in  one  line ;  the  Ele- 
ans  and  Achaeans,  who  were  the  weakest  of  their  troops, had 
the  centre;  and  the  Athenians  alone  composed  the  left  wing. 
In  the  other  army,  the  Thebans  and  Arcadians,  were  on  the 
left,  the  Argives  on  the  right,  and  the  other  allies  in  the  cen- 
tre.    The  cavalry,  on  each  ^side,  were  disposed  in  the  wings. 

The  Theban  general  marched  in  order  of  battle,  that  he 
might  not  be  obliged,  when  he  came  up  with  the  enemy,  to 
lose,  in  the  disposition  of  his  army,  a  time  which  cannot  be 
recovered  when  lost  in  great  enterprises.  He  did  not  march 
directly,  and  with  his  front  to  the  enemy,  but  in  a  column 
upon  the  hills,  with  his  left  wing  foremost;  as  if  he  did  not 
intend  to  fight  that  day.  When  he  was  opposite  to  them,  at 
a  quarter  of  a  league's  distance,  he  made  the  troops  halt,  and 
lay  down  their  arms,  as  if  he  designed  to  encamp.  The  ene- 
my were  deceived  by  his  stand ;  and,  reckoning  no  longer 
upon  a  oattle,  they  quitted  their  arms,  dispersed  themselves 
kbout  the  camp,  and  suffered  that  ardour  to  be  extinguished 
which  a  near  approach  of  battle  is  wont  to  kindle  in  th 
nearts  of  the  soldiers. 

Epaminondas,  howeve»',  by  suddenly  wheehng  his  troop. 


y 


i 


changed  his  column  into  a  line  ;  and,  having  drawn  out  the 
choice  troops,  whom  he  had  expressly  posted  in  front  upon 
his  march,  lie  made  them  double  their  files  upon  the  front  of 
his  left  wing,  to  add  to  its  strength,  and  to  put  it  into  a  con- 
dition to  attack,  in  a  point,  t]ie  Lacedaemonian  phalanx,  which, 
by  the  movement  he  had  made,  faced  it  directly.  He  order- 
ed the  centre  and  right  wing  of  his  army  to  move  very  slow, 
and  to  halt  before  they  came  up  with  the  enemy,  that  he  might 
not  hazard  the  event  of  the  battle  upon  the  troops,  in  which 
he  had  no  great  confidence.  He  expected  to  decide  the  vic- 
tory by  that  body  of  chosen  troops,  which  he  commanded  in 
person,  and  which  he  had  formed  into  a  column,  to  attack  the 
enemy  in  a  wedge-like  point.  He  assured  himself,  that,  if 
he  could  penetrate  the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx,  in  which  the 
enemy's  principal  force  consisted,  he  should  not  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  rout  the  rest  of  the  army,  by  charging  upon  the  right 
and  left,  with  his  victorious  troops. 

But,  that  he  might  prevent  the  Athenians,  in  the  left  wing, 
from  coming  to  the  support  of  their  right,  against  his  in- 
tended attack,  he  made  a  detachment  of  his  horse  and  foot 
advance  out  of  the  line,  and  posted  them  upon  a  rising  ground, 
in  readiness  to  flank  the  Athenians,  as  well  to  cover  his  right, 
as  to  alarm  them,  and  give  them  reason  to  apprehend  being 
taken  in  flank  and  rear,  themselves,  if  they  advanced  to  sus- 
tain their  right.  After  having  disposed  his  whole  army  in 
this  manner,  he  moved  on  to  charge  the  enemy,  with  the 
whole  weight  of  his  column.  They  were  strangely  surprised, 
when  they  saw  Epaminondas  advance  towards  them,  in  this 
order;  and  resumed  their  arms,  bridled  their  horses,  and 
made  all  the  haste  they  could  to  their  ranks. 

Whilst  Epaminondas  marched  against  the  enemy,  the 
cavalry  that  covered  his  flank  on  the  left,  the  best  at  that 
time  in  Greece,  entirely  composed  of  Thebans  and  Thessa- 
lians,  had  orders  to  attack  the  enemy's  horse.  The  Theban 
general,  whom  nothing  escaped,  had  artfully  stationed  bow- 
men, slingers,  and  dart-men,  in  the  intervals  of  his  horse,  to 
begin  the  disorders  of  the  enemy's  cavalry,  by  a  previous 
discharge  of  a  shower  of  arrows,  stones,  and  javelins. 

The  other  army  had  neglected  to  take  the  same  precaution; 
and  made  another  fault,  not  less  considerable,  in  giving  as 
much  depth  to  the  squadrons,  as  if  they  had  been  a  phalanx. 
By  this  means,  their  horse  were  incapable  of  supporting, 
long,  the  charge  of  the  Thebans.  After  having  made  seve- 
ral ineffectual  attacks,  with  great  loss,  they  were  -bliged  to 
retire  behind  their  infantry. 

Ill  the  mean  time,  Epaminondas,  with  his  body  of  foot,  had 


306 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


207 


"» 


I 


II 


charged  the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx.  The  troops  fought,  on 
both  sides,  with  incredible  ardour,  both  the  Thebans  and 
Lacedaemonians  having  resolved  to  perish,  rather  than  yield 
the  glory  of  arms  to  their  rivals.  They  began  with  fighting 
with  the  spear ;  and  those  first  arms  being  soon  broken  in  the 
fury  of  the  combat,  they  charged  each  other  sword-in-hand. 
The  resistance  was  equally  obstinate ;  and  the  slaughter  very 
great,  on  both  sides. 

The  troops,  despising  danger,  and  desiring  only  to  distin 
^uish  themselves  by  the  greatness  of  their  actions,  chose 
rather  to  die  in  their  ranks,  than  to  lose  a  step  of  their  ground. 
The  furious  slaughter  on  both  sides,  having  continued  a  great 
while,  without  a  victory  inclining  to  either,  Epaminondas,  to 
force  it  to  declare  for  him,  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  an 
extraordinary  effort  in  person,  without  regard  to  the  danger 
of  his  own  life. 

He  formed,  therefore,  a  troop  of  the  bravest  and  most  de- 
termined about  him,  and  putting  himself  at  their  head,  made 
a  vigorous  charge,  where  the  battle  was  most  warm,  and 
wounded  the  general  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  with  the  first 
javehn.  This  troop,  by  his  example,  having  wounded  or 
killed  all  that  stood  in  their  way,  broke  and  penetrated  the 
phalanx.  The  Lacedaemonians,  dismayed  by  the  presence  of 
Epaminondas,  and  overpowered  by  the  weight  of  that  in- 
trepid party,  were  compelled  to  give  ground. 

The  main  body  of  the  Theban  troops,  animated  by  their 
general's  example  and  success,  drove  back  the  enemy  upon 
their  right  and  left,  and  made  great  slaughter.  But  some 
troops  of  the  Spartans,  perceiving  that  Epaminondas  aban- 
doned himself  too  much  to  his  ardour,  suddenly  rallied  and 
returmng  to  the  fight,  charged  him  with  a  shower  of  javelins 
Whilst  he  kept  off  part  of  those  darts,  shunned  some  of  them, 
fenced  off  others,  and  was  fighting  with  the  most  heroic 
valour,  a  Spartan,  named  Callicrates  gave  him  a  mortal 
wound,  with  a  javelin,  in  the  breast,  across  his  cuirass. 

The  wood  of  the  javelin  being  broken  off,  the  iron  nead 
continuing  in  the  wound,  the  torment  was  insupportable,  and 
he  fdl  immediately.  The  battle  began  around  him  with  new 
lury,  the  one  side  using  their  utmost  endeavours  to  take  him 
alive,  and  the  other  to  save  him.  The  Thebans  at  last  gain- 
ed their  point,  and  carried  him  off,  after  having  put  the  ene- 
my  to  flight.  ^  ^ 

After  several  different  movements,  and  alternate  losses  and 
advantages,  the  troops,  on  both  sides,  stood  still,  and  rested 
upon  their  arms ;  and  the  trumpets  of  the  two  armies,  as  if 
by  consent,  soAinded  the  ^et^ea^  at  the  same  time.    Each 


f 


t 


party  pretended  to  the  victory,  and  erected  a  trophy;  the 
Thebans,  because  they  had  defeated  the  right  wing,  and  re 
mained  masters  of  the  field  of  battle ;  the  Athenians,  because 
they  had  cut  the  detachment  in  pieces.  From  this  point  of 
honour,  both  sides  refused,  at  first,  to  ask  leave  to  bury  their 
dead,  which,  with  the  ancients,  was  confessing  their  defeat. 
The  Lacedxmonians,  however  sent  first  to  demand  that  per- 
mission, after  which,  the  rest  had  no  thoughts  but  of  paying 
che  last  duties  to  the  slain. 

In  the  mean  time,  Epaminondas  had  been  carried  into  the 
camp.  The  surgeons,  after  having  examined  the  wound,  de- 
clared that  he  would  expire,  as  soon  as  the  head  of  the  dart 
was  drawn  out  of  it.  Those  words  gave  all  that  were  pre- 
sent the  utmost  sorrow  and  affliction :  they  were  inconsola- 
ble, on  seeing  so  great  a  man  on  the  point  of  expiring.  The 
only  concern  expressed  by  himself,  was  about  his  arms,  and 
the  success  of  the  battle  When  they  showed  him  his  shield, 
and  assured  him  that  the  Thebans  had  gained  the  victory, 
turning  towards  his  friends,  with  a  calm  and  serene  air,  "  all 
then  is  well,"  said  he,  and  soon  after,  upon  drawing  the  head 
of  the  javelin  out  of  his  body,  he  expired,  in  the  arms  of 
victory. 

As  the  glory  of  Thebes  rose  with  Epaminondas,  so  it  fell 
with  him ;  and  he  is  perhaps  the  only  instance  of  one  man's 
being  able  to  inspire  his  country  with  military  glory,  and  lead 
It  on  to  conquest,  without  having  had  a  predecessor,  or  leav- 
ing an  imitator  of  his  example. 

The  battle  of  Mantinea,  was  the  greatest  that  ever  was 
fought  by  Grecians  against  Grecians;  the  whole  stren-gth  of 
the  country  having  been  drawn  out,  and  ranged  according  to 
their  different  interests ;  and  it  was  fought  with  an  obstinacy 
equal  to  its  importance,  which  was  the  fixing  the  empire  of 
(ireece.  This  must,  of  course,  have  been  transferred  to  the 
Thebans,  upon  their  victory,  if  they  had  not  lost  the  fruits  oi 
it  by  the  death  of  their  general,  who  was  the  soul  of  all  their 
counsels  and  designs. 

This  blasted  all  their  hopes,  and  extinguished  their  sudden 
blaze  of  power,  almost  as  soon  as  it  was  kindled.  However, 
they  did  not  presently  give  up  their  pretensions ;  they  were 
still  ranked  among  the  leading  states,  and  made  several  furthe-* 
struggles ;  but  they  were  faint  and  ineffectual,  and  such  as 
were  rather  for  life  and  being,  than  for  superiority  and  do- 
minion. A  peace  therefore  was  proposed,  which  was  ratified 
by  all  the  states  of  Greece,  except  Sparta;  the  conditions  of 
which  were,  that  every  state  should  retain  what  it  possessedy 
and  hold  it  independent  of  any  other  power. 


4 


'•'I 


I 


eos 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


209 


A  state  of  repose  followed  this  peace,  in  which  the  Grecian 
powers  seemed  to  slacken  from  their  former  animosities ;  and, 
if  we  except  an  expedition  under  Agesilaus,  into  Egypt, 
whither  he  went  to  assist  Tachos,  who  had  usurped  that  king- 
dom, and  in  which  he  died,  there  was  little  done  for  several 
years  following.  The  Athenians,  more  particularly,  when 
they  found  themselves  delivered  from  him  who  kept  up  their 
emulation,  grew  insolent  and  remiss ;  and  abandoned  them- 
selves to  their  ease  and  pleasure,  being  wholly  taken  up  with 
shows,  sports,  and  festivals. 

They  were  naturally  too  much  addicted  to  these  amuse- 
mcntr*,  and  they  had  formerly  been  encouraged  in  them  by 
Pericles,  who  knew  how  to  lead  them  by  their  inclinations, 
and  took  this  method  to  ingratiate  himself,  and  to  divert  them 
from  inspecting  too  narrowly  into  his  administration.  But 
they  now  carried  their  diversions  to  a  much  higher  pitch  of 
extravagance.  They  had  such  a  passion  for  the  stage,  that  it 
stifled  all  other  thoughts,  either  of  business  or  of  glory.  In 
short,  the  decorations  and  other  charges  attending  the  theatre, 
were  so  excessive,  that  Plutarch  says,"  It  cost  more  to  repre- 
sent some  of  the  famous  pieces  of  Sophocles  and  Euripedes, 
than  it  had  done  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  barbarians." 

In  order  to  support  this  charge,  they  seized  upon  the  fund 
which  had  been  set  apart  for  the  war,  with  a  prohibition,  upon 
pain  of  death,  ever  to  advise  the  applying  of  it  to  any  other 
purpose.  They  not  only  reversed  this  decree,  but  went  as  far 
the  other  way,  making  it  death  to  propose  the  restoring  the 
fund  to  the  uses  to  which  it  had  before  been  appropriated, 
under  the  same  penalties. 

By  diverting  the  course  of  the  supplies,  in  so  extraordinary 
a  manner,  and  entertaining  the  idle  citizen  at  the  expense  of 
the  soldier  and  mariner,  they  seemed  to  have  no  remains  of 
that  spirit  and  vigour,  which  they  had  exerted  in  the  Persian 
wars,  when  they  demolished  their  houses  to  furnish  out  a 
navy,  and  when  the  women  stoned  a  man  to  death,  who  pro- 
posed to  appease  the  Great  King  (as  he  was  called)  by  paying 
tribute,  and  doing  homage. 

In  this  general  remissness,  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that 
their  allies  would  treat  them  with  the  respect  they  demanded. 

A    T  ry    Most  of  the  states,  that  had  hitherto  been  in  alli- 
'  ance  with  them,  and  had  found  security  under  their 

CJ  ^  Q  '  • 

protection,  now  took  up  arms  against  them.  In 
reducing  these,  Chabrias,  Iphicratcs,  and  Timotheus,  gained 
great  reputation  ;  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  consummate 
generals ;  but  their  successes  are  too  minute,  to  rank  them 
among  the  class  of  eminent  commanders;  and  whatever  their 


skill  might  have  been,  there  wantc;4  a  great  occasion  for  its 
display. 

This  war  opened  with  the  siege  of  Chio,  in  which  the  Athe- 
nians were  repulsed ;  and  Chabrias,  unwilling  to  abandon  his 
vessel,  preferred  death  to  flight.  The  siege  of  Byzantium 
followed ;  before  which,  the  fleet  of  the  contending  powers 
was  dispersed  by  a  storm,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Athe- 
nian generals  were  recalled.  Timotheus  was  fined  a  great 
sum  ;  but,  being  too  poor  to  pay,  he  went  into  voluntary  ban- 
ishment. 

Iphicrates  was  also  obliged  to  answer  for  himself,  but  he 
got  off  by  his  eloquence ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  the  affairs  of 
Athens  succeeded  but  ill  under  the  guidance  of  Charis,  who 
was  left  sole  commander.  A  peace  was  concluded,  whereby 
every  city  and  people  were  left  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  their 
liberty;  and  thus  the  war  of  the  allies  ended,  after  having 
continued  three  years. 

During  these  transactions,  a  power  was  growing  up  in 
Greece,  hitherto  unobserved,  but  now  too  conspicuous  and 
formidable,  to  be  overlooked  in  the  general  picture — this  was 
that  of  the  Macedonians,  a  people  hitherto  obscure,  and  in  a 
manner  barbarous,  and  who,  though  warlike  and  hardy,  had 
never  yet  presumed  to  intermeddle  in  the  affairs  of  Greece : 
but  several  circumstances  now  concurred  to  raise  them  from 
obscurity,  and  to  involve  them  in  measures,  which,  by  degrees, 
wrought  a  thorough  change  in  the  state  of  Greece.  It  will  be 
necessary,  therefore,  to  begin  with  a  short  account  of  their 
origin  and  power,  before  we  enter  into  a  detail  of  that  con- 
spicuous part,  which  they  afterwards  performed  on  the  thea- 
tre of  the  world. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
From  the  Birth,  to  the  Death  of  Philip,  King  of  Macedon, 

The  people  of  Macedon  were  hitherto  considered  as  making 
no  part  of  the  Grecian  confederacy:  they  were  looked  upon 
as  borderers,  as  men,  in  a  measure  semi-barbarians ;  who 
boasted,  indeed,  of  taking  their  origin  from  the  Greeks,  but 
who  hitherto  neither  possessed  their  politeness,  nor  enjoyed 
their  freedom :  they  had  little  or  no  intercourse  with  their 
mother  country  ;  they  had  contracted  the  habits  and  manne\-^ 
of  the  natives  where  they  were  settled,  and,  from  thence,  they 
were  treated  with  similar  disrespect. 

The  first  king  who  is  mentioned,  with  any  degive  of  cer- 
tainty, to  have  reigned  in  Macedonia,  was  Caranus,  by  bir-b 


1 
'1 


■f  i 


£10 


THE  HISTORT 


OF  GREECE. 


211 


an  Arrive,  and  said  to  be  the  sixteenth  in  descent  from  Her- 
cules. It  was  upon  this  foundation,  that  Philip  afterwards 
grounded  his  pretensions  to  be  of  the  race  of  Hercules,  and 
assumed  to  himself  divine  honours.  Caranus,  therefore,  is 
commonly  reputed  to  have  led  forth  a  body  of  his  countrymen, 
by  the  advice  of  the  oracle,  into  these  parts,  where  he  settled, 
and  made  himself  king. 

Caranus,  having,  according  to  the  general  account,  reigned 
twenty-eight  years,  the  succession  was  continued  after  him, 
to  the  times  of  which  we  are  now  treating.  But  there  is  ver) 
little  worth  notice  recorded  of  these  kings,  they  being  chiefly 
employed  in  defending  themselves  against  the  incursions  of 
their  neighbours  ;  and,  as  to  their  domestic  affairs,  they  were 
remarkable  only  for  the  frequent  murders  and  usurpations 
which  happened  in  the  royal  family. 

Amyntas,  father  of  Philip,  began  to  reign  the  third  year  of 
the  ninety-sixth  Olympiad.  Having,  the  very  year  after,  been 
warmly  attacked  by  the  Illyrians,  and  dispossessed  of  a  great 
part  of  his  kingdom,  which  he  thought  it  scarcely  possible 
for  him  ever  to  recover,  he  addressed  himself  to  the  Olyn- 
thians ;  to  whom,  in  order  to  engage  them  the  more  firmly  in 
his  interest,  he  had  given  up  a  considerable  tract  of  land  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  their  city. 

He  was  restored  to  the  throne  by  the  Thessalians ;  upon 
which,  he  was  desirous  of  resuming  the  possession  of  the 
lands,  which  nothing  but  the  ill  situation  of  his  affairs  had 
obliged  him  to  resign  to  the  Olynthians.  This  occasioned  a 
war;  but  Amyntas,  not  being  strong  enough  to  make  head, 
singly,  against  so  powerful  a  people,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Athenians  in  particular,  sent  him  succours;  and  enabled  him 
to  weaken  the  power  of  the  Olynthians,  who  threatened  him 
with  a  total  ruin. 

Amyntas  died,  after  having  reigned  twenty-four  years.  He 
left  three  legitimate  children  ; — Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and 
Philip.  Alexander,  the  eldest  son,  reigned  only  one  year.  Per- 
diccas, the  second  brother,  was  opposed  by  Pausanias,  who 
began  by  seizing  some  fortresses:  but,  by  the  assistance  of 
Iphicrates,  the  Athenian  general,  the  usurper  was  expelled, 
and  Perdiccas,  the  lawful  sovereign,  confirmed  on  the  throne. 

He  did  not,  however,  long  continue  in  tranquillity.  Ptol- 
emy, a  natural  son  of  Amyntas,  laid  claim  to  the  crown,  and 
disputed  his  title ;  which,  by  mutual  consent,  was  referred  to 
Pelopidas,  the  Theban,  a  man  more  revered  for  his  probity, 
than  his  valour.  Pelopidas  determined  in  favour  of  Perdiccas ; 
and,  having  judged  it  necessary  to  take  pledges  on  both  sides, 
in  order  to  oblige  the  two  competitors  to  observe  the  articles 


of  the  treaty  accepted  by  them,  among  other  hostages,  he  car- 
ried Philip  with  him  to  Thebes,  where  he  resided  several 
years.   He  was  then  ten  years  of  age. 

Euridice,  when  parting  from  this  much  loved  son,  earnestly 
besought  Pelopidas  to  procure  him  an  education  worthy  of 
his  birth,  and  of  the  city;  to  which  he  was  going  as  a  hostage. 
Pelopidas  placed  him  with  Epaminondas,  who  had  a  cele- 
brated Pythagorean  philosopher  in  his  house,  for  the  educa 
tion  of  his  son. 

Philip  improt^ed  greatly,  by  the  instructions  of  his  precep- 
tor;  and  much  more  by  those  of  Epaminondas  ;  under  whom, 
fie  undoubtedly  made  some  campaigns,  though  no  mention  is 
made  of  this.  He  could  not  have  had  a  more  excellent  mas- 
ter, whether  for  war,  or  the  conduct  of  life ;  for  this  illustri- 
ous Theban  was,  at  the  same  time,  a  great  philosopher :  that 
IS  to  say,  a  wise  and  virtuous  man,  and  a  great  commander, 
as  well  as  a  great  statesman. 

Philip  was  very  proud  of  being  his  pupil,  and  proposed 
him  as  a  model  to  himself;  most  happy  could  he  have  copied 
him  perfectly !  Perhaps,  he  borrowed  from  Epaminondas  his 
activity  in  war,  and  his  promptitude  in  improving  occasions ; 
which,  however,  formed  but  a  very  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
merit  of  that  illustrious  personage.  But,  with  regard  to  his 
temperance,  his  justice,  his  disinterestedness,  his  sincerity, 
his  magnanimity,  his  clemency,  which  rendered  him  truly 
great,  these  were  virtues  which  Philip  did  not  acquire  by 
imitation. 

The  Thebans  did  not  know  that  they  were  then  forming 
and  educating  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  Greece.  After 
Philip  had  spent  nine  or  ten  years  in  their  city,  the  news  of  a 
revolution  in  Macedon,  made  him  resolve  to  leave  Thebes 
clandestinely.  Accordingly,  he  stole  away,  made  the  utmost 
expedition,  and  found  the  Macedonians  greatly  surprised  at 
having  lost  their  king  Perdiccas,  who  had  been  killed,  in  a 
great  battle,  by  the  Illyrians ;  but  much  more  so,  to  find  they 
had  as  many  enemies,  as  neighbours. 

The  Illyrians  were  on  the  point  of  returning  into  the  king- 
dom, with  a  much  greater  force ;  the  Paeonians  infested  it 
with  perpetual  incursions;  the  Thracians  were  determined  to 
place  Pausanias  on  the  throne,  who  had  not  abandoned  his 
pretensions ;  and  the  Athenians  were  bringing  Argseus,  whom 
Mantios,  their  general,  was  ordered  to  support  with  a  strong 
fleet  and  a  considerable  body  of  troops. 

Macedonia,  at  that  time,  wanted  a  prince  of  years  to  gov- 
ern, and  had  only  a  child ;  Amyntas,  the  son  of  Perdiccas, 
and  lawful  heir  to  the  crown.   Philip  governed  the  kingdom, 


V12 


THE  HISTORY 


or  GREECF. 


2l'j 


for  some  time,  by  the  titie  of  guardian  lo  the  prince;  but  the 
subjects,  justly  alarmed,  deposed  the  nephew,  in  favour  of  the 
uncle  ;  aiid,  instead  of  the  heir,  set  him  upon  the  throne,  whom 
the  present  conjuncture  of  affairs  required ;  persuaded  that 
the  Jaws  of  necessity  a^e  superior  to  all  others.  Accordingly, 
Philip,  at  twenty-four  years  of  age,  ascended  the  throne,  the 
first  year  of  the  105th  Olyu.piad. 

Never  did  the  present  condition  of  the  Macedonians  require 
a  man  of  more  prudence  and  activity.  The  lUyrians,  flushed 
with  their  late  victory,  were  preparing  to  march  against  them, 
with  a  great  army.  The  Pseonians  were  making  daily  incur- 
sions upon  them  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  title  to  the  crown 
was  contested,  by  Pausanias  and  Argaeus;  the  former  of  whom 
was  supported  by  the  Thracians ;  and  the  latter  by  the  Athe- 
nians; who,  for  that  purpose,  had  sent  out  a  good  fleet,  and 
three  thousand  landmen. 

Under  these  circumstances,  with  so  many  enemies  againsi 
him,  at  once;  and  that  before  he  was  settled  on  his  thron**^ 
his  first  care  was  to  make  sure  of  his  own  people,  to  ^ain  their 
affections,  and  to  raise  their  spirits ;  for  they  were  very  much 
disheartened,  having  lost  above  four  thousand  men,  in  the 
late  action  with  the  Illyrians.  He  succeeded  in  these  points 
by  the  artfulness  of  his  address,  and  the  force  of  his  eloquence, 
of  which  he  was  a  gi*eat  master. 

His  next  step  was  to  train  and  exercise  them,  and  reform 
their  discipline ;  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  he  instituted  the 
famous  Macedonian  Phalanx,  which  did  so  much  execution. 
It  was  an  improvement  upon  the  ancient  manner  of  fighting 
among  the  Grecians,  who  generally  drew  up  their  foot  so 
close,  as  to  stand  the  shock  of  the  enemy  without  being 
broken.  The  complete  phalanx  was  thought  to  contain  above 
sixteen  thousand  men ;  though  it  was  also  taken  in  general  for 
any  company  or  party  of  soldiers,  and  frequently  for  the  whole 
body  of  foot.  But  this,  of  Philip's  invention,  is  described,  by 
Polybius,  to  be  a  long  square,  consisting  of  eight  thousand 
pike-men,  sixteen  deep,  and  five  hundred  in  front;  the  men 
standing  so  close  together,  that  the  pikes  of  the  fifth  rank 
were  extended  three  feet  beyond  the  line  of  the  front.  The 
rest,  whose  distance  from  the  front  made  their  pikes  useless, 
rested  them  upon  the  shoulders  of  those  who  stood  before 
them ;  and,  so  locking  them  together  in  file,  pressed  forward 
to  support  and  push  on  the  foremost  ranks,  whereby  the  assault 
was  rendered  more  violent  and  irresistible. 

Wnen  Philip  had  made  some  proper  regulation  of  his  af 
fairs  at  home,  he  began  to  look  abroad,  in  order  to  divert  the 
iBorms  which  threatened  him  from  all  quarters.     By  money 


Mid  promises,  he  made  up  matters  for  the  present  with  such 
of  his  enemies  as  lay  nearest  him  ;  and  then  turned  his  forces 
against  the  Athenians,  who  had  marched  up  to  Methone  in 
Macedonia,  to  assist  Argaeus.  He  gave  them  battle,  and'  de- 
feated  them :  and  the  death  of  Argaeus,  who  was  killed  in  the 
action,  put  an  end  to  that  dispute ;  for  he  permitted  the  Athe- 
nians, when  they  were  in  his  power,  to  return  home.  This 
instance  of  his  moderation,  gained  so  far  upon  them,  that  they 
soon  afterwards  concluded  a  peace  with  him :  which  he  ob- 
served no  longer  than  it  served  his  design  of  securing  the 
other  part  of  his  dominions. 

Accordingly,  he  marched  northward,  where  he  declared 
war  against  the  Paeonians,  and  subdued  them ;  then  fell  upon 
the  Illyrians,  and  having  killed  above  seven  thousand  of  them 
in  a  pitched  battle,  obliged  them  to  restore  all  their  conquests 
in  Macedonia.     He  had  also  obstructed  the  passage  of  the 
Thracians ;  but  yet  did  not  think  his  object  sufficientlv  se- 
cured, without  making  himself  master  of  Amphipolis,  which 
was  very  commodiously  situated  on  the  river  Strymon,  and 
was  the  key  of  that  side  of  his  dominions.     He  knew  its  im- 
portance, therefore  he  seized  it,  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign. 
This  was  the  ground  of  his  quarrel  with  the  Athenians, 
who  claimed  it  as  one  of  their  colonies ;  and  made  such  a 
point  of  it,  that  their  setting  up  Argaeus  against  him,  was 
not  so  much  for  his  own  sake,  and  for  the  credit  of  imposing 
a  king  upon  the  Macedonians,  as  with  a  view  to  get  the  city 
rest/)red  to  them  by  his  means,  in  case  he  should  have  suc- 
ceeded in  his  intentions.     Philip  was  sensible  of  their  drift; 
and,  finding  it  necessary  at  that  time  to  keep  some  measures 
with  them,  would  neither  hold  the  place  himself,  nor  let  them 
have  it,  but  took  t  middle  course,  and  declared  it  a  free  city; 
thereby,  leaving  the  inhabitants  to  throw  off  their  dependence 
upon  their  old  masters,  and  making  it  appear  to  be  their  own 
act. 

But  the  city  continued  no  longer  in  this  state,  than  until  he 
found  himself  at  liberty  to  make  a  more  thorough  conquest 
of  it ;  which,  at  this  time,  he  easily  effected,  through  the  re- 
missness of  the  Athenians,  who  refused  to  send  any  relief  to 
it;  alleging,  in  their  excuse,  that  it  would  be  a  breach  of  the 
peace  which  they  had  concluded  with  Philip,  the  year  before. 
But  the  truth  is,  he  tricked  them  out  of  it,  by  a  promise  of 
delivering  it  up  to  them. 

But,  instead  of  keeping  his  word,  ne  made  further  en 
croachments,  by  seizing  on  Pydna  and  Potidaea,  the  latter  of 
which  being  garriso-ied  by  Athenians,  he  drew  them  out,  and 
sent  them  home;  but  dismissed  them  with  such  marks  of 


I 


214  .  THE  HISTORY 

;iuv  ^^  showed  that  he  avoided  coming  to  an  open  rupture 
ciyiUty,  as  sj^^j^^  ^^^^^  -i  1-3  designs  were  more  ripe  ; 

with  that  state,  at  least  unui  ^  weaken 

the  territory  belonging  to  it,  he  gave  up  lu  i  c       , 

who  were  his  father's  '"^f  "f «.  ^"^"f  to  revive  the  quarrel 
HU  hands  were  too  lull,  at  this  time,  lo  rcvivn  mv.   i 

ag"nst'::  rich  and  power'ful  a  city,  which  ^or^^H^^^^ 

either,  had  witl.tood  ^^^^^^^  ^^:^ ^^. 

don.a;  he,  therefore,  chose  jo  o  y  ^    j^.    ^^„„   ^^^ 

nresciit.  and  to  amuse  them  by  ine  acuvci  j  u  „,,'pt 

Kd  done  the  Athenians  by  the  ?«-«' 7"' ^,%^°";'',et£ 

them  at  more  advantage.    In  this  ^^'.f'f '  ^^„  °  „^i-  S  - 

'''  ^V'X"oi;i^°irnrin"  ;tr:  iXinTherCting  in 

thoL°L  iowhrchs"de  soever  the  Olynthians  inclined, 

h:;w'ere  Strong  enough  to  turn  the  balance  ;jdj^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

the  gaining  them  became  a  matter  of  great  contention  between 

lippi,  irom  n  produced  a  hundred  and  forty- 

^old  mme,  which  every  y^*^  P'^.  .        .  •  j^  .^^s  an  immense 
four  thousand  pounds  sterling.     1  his,  wi}icn  wdb  a 
sum  for  that  age,  was  much  more  serviceable  than  ^eets  or 
sum  lor  mat  d-b  )  u^^i\QS'  and  he  seldom  failed  using  it 

Delphos,  concerning  uie  ,,  ^,j^         •  j^  s^^^r  spears, 

he  was  answered  by  ,\^^.  P"f  ,f  ^^'.^  '  V  ^^^  advice  of  the 
he  should  conquer  all  thmgs.       He  ^o^*^/^^^";;'     .^0x11 : 

^VuTa  larger  field  was  now  opening  to  his  ambition.     The 
mutual  divisions  of  the  states  of  Greece,  were,  at  no  tun  , 
whoHv  cemented;  and  they  broke  out  now  upon  a  very  pai- 
dS  occasion.    The  first'  cause  of  the  -Pture,  (which  was 
afterwards  called  the  Sacred  War)  arose  from  t^e  Phocians 
havine  ploughed  up  a  piece  of  ground  belongmg  to  the  tem 
p'eof  Apollo,  at  Delphos.  Against  this,  all  the  -eigbbouring 
sates  exclaimed,  as  a  sacrilege:  they  were  cited  before  the 
^o^citof  Amphictyons, whoVrticularly  t-k  cogm^^^^^^^ 
sacred  mattci-    the  Phocians  were  cast,  and  a  heavy  fine  im- 
'K,scd  upon  them.     This,  the  Phocians  were  unable  to  pay. 


or  GREECE. 


215 


they  refused  to  submit  to  the  decree,  alleging,  that  the  care 
and  patronage  of  the  temple  anciently  belonged  to  them ;  and 
to  vindicate  this,  they  quoted  a  precedent  from  Homer.         ' 

Philomelas,  one  of  their  chief  citizens,  was  principally  in- 
strumental in  encouraging  them  to  arms;  he  raised  their 
ardour,  and  was  appointed  their  general.  He  firs'!  applied 
himself  to  the  Spartans ;  who  had  likewise  been  fined  by  the 
Amphictyons,  at  the  instance  of  the  Thebans,  after  the  battle 
of  Leuctra,  for  having  seized  the  Cadmea.  For  this  reason, 
Ihey  were  very  well  disposed  to  join  with  him ;  but  did  not 
yet  think  it  proper  to  declare  themselves.  However,  they  en- 
couraged his  design,  and  supplied  him,  underhand,  with 
money,  by  which  means  he  raised  troops ;  and,  without  much 
difficulty  got  possession  of  the  temple. 

The  chief  resistance  he  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood,  was 
from  the  Locrians ;  but,  having  worsted  them,  he  erased  the 
decree  of  the  Amphictyons,  which  was  inscribed  on  the  pillars 
of  the  temple.  However,  to  strengthen  his  authority,  and  give 
a  colour  to  his  proceedings,  he  thought  it  convenient  to  con- 
sult the  oracle,  and  to  procure  an  answer  in  his  favour.  But 
when  he  applied  to  the  priestess  for  that  purpose,  she  refused 
to  officiate,  until,  being  intimidated  by  his  threats,  she  told 
him, "  the  god  left  him  at  liberty  to  act  as  he  pleased  ;'*  which 
he  looked  upon  as  a  good  answer,  and,  as  such,  took  care  to 
divulge  it. 

The  Amphictyons,  meeting  a  second  time,  a  resolution  was 
formed  to  declare  war  against  the  Phocians.  Most  of  the 
Grecian  nations  engaged  in  this  quarrel,  and  sided  with  the 
one  or  the  other  party.  The  Boeotians,  the  Locrians,  Thes- 
salians,  and  several  other  neighbouring  people,  declared  in 
favour  of  the  god ;  whilst  Sparta,  Athens,  and  some  other 
cities  of  Peloponnesus,  joined  with  the  Phocians.  Philome- 
las had  not  yet  touched  the  treasures  of  the  temple ;  but,  be- 
ing afterwards  not  so  scrupulous,  he  believed  that  the  riches 
of  the  god  could  not  be  better  employed,  than  in  the  deitv's 
defence ;  for  he  gave  this  specious  name  to  this  sacrilegious 
Attempt;  and  being  enabled,  by  this  fresh  supply,  to  double 
ihe  pay  of  his  soldiers,  he  raised  a  very  considerable  body 
of  troops. 

Several  battles  were  fought,  and  the  success,  for  some  time, 
seemed  doubtful.  Every  one  knows  how  much  religious 
wars  are  to  be  dreaded ;  and  the  pr  ligious  lengths  which  a 
false  zeal,  when  veiled  with  so  vene  able  a  name,  is  apt  to  go. 
The  Thebans,  having,  in  a  rencounter,  taken  several  prison- 
ers, condemned  them  all  to  die,  as  sacrilegious  wretches  who 

T 


fib 


THE  HISTORY 


OI  GREECE 


217 


were  excommunicated ;  the  Phocians  did  the  same,  by  way 

of  reprisal.  ,       u     • 

These  had,  at  first,  gained  several  advantages;  but, having 
been  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  Philomelas,  their  leader,  being 
closely  attacked  on  an  eminence,  from  which  there  was  no 
retreating,  defended  himself,  for  a  long  time,  Avith  mvincible 
bravery ;  which,  however,  not  availing,  he  threw  himsell 
from  a  rock,  in  order  to  avoid  the  torments  he  must  undoubt- 
edly have  undergone,  had  he  fallen  alive  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies.  Oenomarchus  was  his  successor,  and  took  upon 
him  the  command  of  the  forces. 

Philip  thought  it  most  consistent  with  his  mtercst,  to  re- 
main neuter,  in  this  general  movement  of  the  Greeks,  m  ia- 
vour  neither  of  the  Phocians  or  the  Thebans.  It  was  con- 
sistent with  the  policy  of  this  ambitious  prince,  who  had  lit- 
tle regard  for  religion,  or  the  interests  of  Apollo,  but  was  al 
ways  intent  upon  his  own,  not  to  engage  in  a  war,  by  which 
he  could  not  reap  the  least  benefit ;  and  to  take  advantage  of 
a  juncture,  in  which  all  Greece,  employed  and  divided  oy  a 
great  contest,  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  push  his  conquests, 
and  extend  his  fmntiers,  without  any  apprehension  of  oppo- 
sition. He  was  also  well  pleased  to  see  both  parties  weaken 
and  consume  each  other ;  as  he  should  thereby  be  enabled  to 
fall  upon  them,  afterwards,  to  greater  advantage. 

Being  desirous  of  subjecting  Thrace,  and  of  securing  the 
conquests  he  had  alreadv  made  there,  he  determined  to  pos- 
sess  himself  of  Methone,  a  small  city,  incapable  of  support- 
ing itself  by  its  own  strength,  but  which  gave  him  disquiet 
and  obstructed  his  desigiiS,  whenever  it  was  in  the  hands  of 
his  enemies.  Accordingly,  he  besieged  that  city,  made  him- 
self master  of  it,  and  razed  it. 

Aster  of  Amphipolis  had  offered  his  services  to  Philip,  as 
so  excellent  a  marksman,  that  he  could  bring  down  birds  in 
their  most  rapid  flight.  The  monarch  made  this  answer— 
"  Well,  I  will  take  you  into  my  service,  when  I  make  war  upon 
starlings:"  which  answer  stung  the  archer  to  the  quick.  A 
repartee  proves  often  of  fatal  consequence  to  him  who  makes 
it.  After  having  thrown  himself  down  into  the  city,  he  let 
fly  an  arrow,  on  which  was  written,  "  To  Philip*s  right  eye." 
This  carried  a  most  cruel  proof  that  he  was  a  good  marks- 
man, for  he  hit  him  in  the  right  eye ;  and  Philip  sent  him 
back  the  same  arrow,  wi  'h  this  inscription  :  "  If  Philip  takes 
the  city,  he  will  hang  ui>  \s1er:"  and  accordingly  he  was  as 
good  as  his  word.  A  sk.iful  surgeon  drew  the  arrow  out  ol 
Philip's  eye.  with  so  muf  h  art  and  dexterity,  that  not  the 


least  scar  remained ;  and,  though  he  could  not  save  his  sight, 
he  yet  took  away  the  blemish. 

After  taking  tie  city,  Philip,  ever  studious  either  to  weak- 
en his  enemies  by  new  conquests,  or  gain  more  friends  by 
doing  them  some  important  service,  marched  into  Thessaly, 
which  had  implored  his  assistance  against  its  tyrants.  Th^ 
liberty  of  that  country  seemed  now  secure,  since  Alexander 
of  Pherae  was  no  more.  Nevertheless,  his  brothers,  who  in 
concert  with  his  wife  Theba,  had  murdered  him,  grown  weary 
of  having  some  time  acted  the  part  of  deliverers,  revived 
his  tyranny,  and  oppressed  the  Thessalians  with  a  new  yoke. 

Lycophron,  the  eldest  of  the  three  brothers,  who  succeed- 
ed Alexander,  had  strengthened  himself,  by  the  protection  of 
the  Phocians.  Oenomarchus,  their  leader,  brought  him  a 
numerous  body  of  forces;  and  at  first  gained  a  considerable 
advantage  over  Philip ;  but,  engaging  him  a  second  time,  he 
was  entii^ely  defeated,  and  his  army  routed.  The  flying  troops 
were  pursued  to  the  sea  shore  :  upwards  of  six  thousand  men 
were  killed  on  the  spot,  among  whom  was  Oenomarchus, 
whose  body  was  hung  upon  a  gallows ;  and  three  thousand, 
who  were  taken  prisoners,  were  thrown  into  the  sea,  by 
Philip's  order,  as  so  many  sacrilegious  wretches,  the  profess- 
ed enemies  of  religion. 

Philip,  after  having  freed  the  Thessalians,  resolved  to  car- 
ry his  arms  into  Phocis.  This  was  his  first  attempt  to  gain 
a  footing  in  Greece,  and  to  have  a  share  in  the  general  af- 
fairs of  the  Greeks,  from  which  the  kings  of  Macedon  had 
always  been  excluded,  as  foreigners.  In  this  view,  upon  pre- 
tence of  going  over  into  Phocis,  in  order  to  punish  the  sacri- 
legious Phocians,  he  marched  towards  Thermopylae,  to  take 
possession  of  a  pass,  which  gave  him  a  free  entrance  into 
Greece,  and  especially  into  Attica. 

An  admission  of  foreigners  into  Greece,  was  a  measure 
that  was  always  formidable  to  those  who  called  themselves 
Grecians.  The  Athenians,  hearing  of  a  march,  which  might 
prove  of  the  utmost  consequence,  hastened  to  Thermopylae, 
and  occupied  this  important  pass,  which  Philip  did  not  at- 
tempt to  force.  The  Athenians  were  roused  from  their  lethar- 
gy of  pleasure,  to  make  use  of  this  precaution,  by  the  per- 
suasions of  Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  orator;  who,  from" 
the  beginning,  saw  the  ambition  of  Philip,  and  the  power 
which  he  possessed  to  carry  him  through  his  designs. 

This  illustrious  orator  and  statesman,  whom  we  shall  here 
after  find  acting  so  considerable  a  part  in  the  course  of  this 
history,  was  born  in  the  last  year  of  the  ninety-ninth  Olym- 
piad, according  to  Dionysius ;  who,  in  his  epistle  to  Laniacub, 


i 


i 


: 


[i\ 


r 


.  : 
If- 


<18 


THE  HISTORY 


has  accurately  distinguished  the  different  periods  of  his  life, 
and  the  times  in  which  his  several  orations  were  delivered. 
He  was  the  son,  not  of  a  mean  and  obscure  mechanic,  as  the 
Roman  satirists  have  represented  him,  but  of  an  eminent 
Athenian  citizen,  who  raised  a  considerable  fortune  by  the 
manufacture  of  arms.  At  the  age  of  seven  years,  he  lost  his 
father ;  and,  to  add  to  his  misfortune,  the  guardians  to  whom 
he  was  intrusted,  wasted  and  embezzled  a  considerable  par 
of  his  inheritance. 

Thus,  oppressed  by  fraud,  and  discouraged  by  a  weak  and 
effeminate  habit  of  body,  he  yet  discovered  an  early  ambition 
to  distinguish  himself  as  a  popular  speaker.  The  applause 
bestowed  on  a  public  orator,  who  had  defended  his  country's 
right  to  the  city  of  Oropus,  in  an  elaborate  harangue,  inflamed 
his  youthful  mind  with  an  eager  desire  of  meriting  the  like 
honour.  Isocrates  and  Isaeus  were  then  the  two  most  emi- 
nent professors  of  eloquence  at  Athens.  The  soft  and  florid 
manner  of  the  former,  did  by  no  means  suit  the  genius  of 
Demosthenes :  Isaeus  was  more  vigorous  and  energetic,  and 
his  style  better  suited  to  public  business.  To  him,  therefore, 
he  applied  ;  and,  under  his  direction,  pursued  those  studies 
which  might  accomplish  him  for  the  character  to  which  he 
aspired.  His  first  essay  was  made  against  his  guardian,  by 
whom  he  had  been  most  injuriously  treated ;  but  the  good- 
ness of  his  cause  was  here  of  more  service,  than  the  abilities 
of  the  young  orator ;  for  his  early  attempts  were  unpromis- 
ing, and  soon  convinced  him  of  the  necessity  of  a  graceful 
and  manly  pronunciation.  His  close  and  severe  application, 
and  the  extraordinary  diligence  with  which  he  laboured  to 
conquer  his  defects  and  natural  infirmities,  are  well  known : 
and  have  been  too  frequently  the  subjects  of  historians  and 
critics,  ancient  and  modern,  to  need  a  minute  recital. 

His  character  as  a  statesman  will  be  best  recollected,  from 
the  history  of  his  conduct  in  the  present  transactions.  As 
an  orator,  the  reader  perhaps  is  not  to  be  informed  of  his 
qualifications.  Indeed,  the  study  of  oratory  was,  at  that  time, 
the  readiest,  and  almost  the  only  means,  of  rising  in  the  state. 
His  first  essay  at  the  bar,  was  two  years  after  this  incident, 
when  he  called  his  guardians  to  account  for  embezzling  his 
patrimony,  and  recovered  some  part  of  it.  This  encouraged 
him,  some  time  afterwards,  to  harangue  before  the  people,  in 
their  public  assembly,  but  he  acquitted  himself  so  ill,  that 
they  hissed  him.  However,  he  ventured  a  second  time,  but 
with  no  better  success  than  before ;  so  that  he  went  away 
ashamed,  confounded,  and  quite  in  despair.  It  was  upon  this 
occasion^  that  Satyrus  the  player  accosted  him^  and^  in  a 


OF  GREECE. 


219 


friendly  way,  encouraged  him  to  proceed.  With  this  view, 
he  asked  him  to  repeat  to  him  some  verses  of  Sophocles,  Or 
Euripides,  which  he  accordingly  did :  the  other  repeated  them 
after  him,  but  with  such  a  different  spirit  and  cadence,  as 
made  him  sensible  that  he  knew  very  little  of  elocution.  But, 
by  his  instructions,  and  his  own  perseverance,  at  length  he 
made  himself  master  of  it ;  and,  by  the  methods  before  men- 
tioned, corrected  the  imperfections  which  were  born  with 
him,  as  well  as  the  ill  habits  which  he  had  contracted.  It  is 
not  very  clear  whether  this  passage  be  rightly  ascribed  to 
Satyrus,  who  seems  to  be  confounded  with  Neoptolemus  and 
Andronicus,  who  were  likewise  famous  comedians ;  and  De- 
mosthenes is  said  to  have  been  instructed  by  all  the  three. 

With  these  advantages  and  improvements,  he  appeared 
again  in  public,  and  succeeded  so  well,  that  people  flocked 
from  all  parts  of  Greece,  to  hear  him.  From  that  time,  he 
was  looked  upon  as  the  standard  of  true  eloquence:  inso- 
much that  none  of  his  countrymen  have  been  put  in  compari- 
son with  him ;  nor  even  among  the  Romans,  aiiy  but  Cicero ; 
and,  though  it  has  been  made  a  question,  by  the  ancient 
writers,  to  which  of  the  two  they  should  give  the  preference, 
they  have  not  ventured  to  decide,  but  have  contented  them- 
selves with  describing  their  different  beauties,  and  showing, 
that  they  were  both  perfect  in  their  kind. 

His  eloquence  was  grave  and  austere,  like  his  temper  i 
masculine  and  sublime,  bold,  forcible,  and  impetuous,  abound- 
ing with  metaphors,  apostrophes,  and  interrogations  ;  which, 
with  his  solemn  way  of  invoking  and  appealing  to  the  gods, 
the  planets,  elements,  and  the  manes  of  those  who  fell  at  Sa- 
lamis  and  Marathon,  had  such  a  wonderfUl  effect  upon  his 
hearers,  that  they  thought  him  inspired. 

If  he  had  not  so  much  softness  and  insinuation,  as  is  often 
requisite  in  an  orator,  it  was  not  that  he  wanted  art  and  deli- 
cacy, when  the  case  required  it :  he  knew  how  to  sound  the 
inclinations  of  the  people,  and  lo  lead  them  to  the  point  he 
aimed  at ;  and  sometimes,  by  seeming  to  propose  that  which 
was  directly  the  contrary. 

But  his  chief  characteristic  was  vehemence,  both  in  action 
and  expression :  and,  indeed,  that  was  the  qualification,  of  all 
others,  most  wanted,  at  this  time.  The  people  were  grown 
so  insolent  and  imperious,  so  factious  and  divided,  so  jealous 
of  the  power  of  the  democracy,  and,  so  sunk  into  a  state  of 
pleasure  and  indolence,  that  no  arts  of  persuasion  would  have 
been  so  effectual,  as  that  spirit  and  resolution,  that  force  and 
energy  of  Demosthenes,  to  humble  them,  and  to  rouse  them 
into  a  sense  of  their  common  danger 

T  2 


i20 


THE  HISTORY 


But  neither  could  Demosthenes  himself  have  made  such 
impressions  on  them,  if  his  talent  of  speaking  had  not  been 
supported  by  their  opinion  of  his  integrity.  It  was  that, 
which  added  weight  and  emphasis  to  every  thing  he  said, 
and  animated  the  whole.  It  was  that,  which  chiefly  engaged 
their  attention,  and  determined  their  counsels,  when  they  were 
convinced  that  he  spoke  from  his  heart,  and  had  no  interest 
to  manage,  but  that  of  the  community ;  and  of  this,  he  gavt; 
the  strongest  proofs,  in  his  zeal  against  Philip,  who  said,  he 
was  of  more  weight  against  him,  than  all  the  fleets  and  armies 
of  Athens,  and  that  he  had  no  enemy,  but  Demosthenes.  He 
was  not  wanting  in  his  endeavours  to  corrupt  him,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece :  but  this  great  orator 
withstood  all  his  offers;  and, as  it  was  observed,  all  the  gold 
in  Macedon  could  not  bribe  him. 

When  Philip  found  himself  shut  out  of  Greece  by  the 
Athenians,  he  turned  his  arms  against  those  remote  placei 
which  depended  on  them,  either  as  colonies  or  as  conquests ; 
and  particularly  against  the  Olynthians,  whom  he  had  Jong 
looked  upon  with  an  evil  eye;  but  had  courted  and  cajoled, 
whilst  he  was  otherwise  employed.  But  he  came  now  re- 
solved entirely  to  reduce  them ;  and,  advancing  towards  the 
city,  only  sent  them  a  short  message,  to  let  them  know,  that 
one  of  these  two  points  was  become  necessary :  either  that 
they  must  quit  Olynthus,  or  he  Macedonia. 

Whereupon,  they  sent  immediately  to  Athens,  for  relief. 
The  subject  was  debated  there,  with  great  solemnity ;  and 
Demosthenes  was  very  earnest  in  sending  them  succours. 
He  was  opposed  by  Demades  and  Hyperides.  The  opinion, 
however,  of  Demosthenes  prevailed :  the  people  of  Athens 
resolved  to  unite  against  Philip ;  but  the  great  difficulty  lay 
in  flemishing  the  supplies :  their  principal  fund,  which  had 
formerly  served  the  purposes  of  war,  had  long  been  converted 
to  the  use  of  the  stage. 

The  money  arising  from  this  fund,  was  computed  at  a 
thousand  talents  a-year;  and  a  certain  proportion  of  it  was 
allotted  to  the  citizens,  to  defray  the  charge  of  their  admit- 
tance into  the  theatre.  This  distribution  having  been  con 
tinued  to  them  from  the  time  of  Pericles,  they  claimed  it, 
now,  as  their  right ;  especially,  since  they  had  lately  obtain- 
ed a  law,  which  made  it  capital  to  propose  the  restoring  the 
fund  to  the  uses  for  which  it  was  originally  granted.  Hence, 
it  was,  that,  upon  any  pressing  emergency,  extraordinary 
taxes  were  to  be  raised ;  and  they  were  laid  so  unequally, 
and  collected  with  so  much  difficulty,  that  they  seldom  an* 
swered  the  service  for  which  they  had  been  intended. 


OF  GREECE.  *j2\ 

Demosthenes  treated  this  subject  with  the  utmost  ar  t  and 
circumspection.  After  showing  that  the  Athenians  were  in- 
dispensab  y  obliged  to  raise  an  army,  in  order  to  stop  the  en- 
terprise ol  their  aspiring  enemy,  he  asserted,  that  the  theatri- 
cal lund  was  the  only  probable  means  of  supply.  These  re- 
monstrances  had  some  weight,  but  were  not  attended  with 
deserved  success.  The  Athenians  sent  a  reinforcement  to 
Olynthus;  but  Philip,  who  had  corrupted  the  principal  men 
m  the  town,  entered,  plundered  it,  and  sold  the  inhabitants 
imong  the  rest  of  the  spoil.  Here,  he  found  much  treasure, 
which  served  to  assist  him  in  his  further  encroachments 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Thebans,  being  unable  alone  to  ter- 
minate the  war,  whijh  they  had  so  long  carried  on  ai>ainst 
the  Phocians,  addressed  Philip.  Hitherto,  as  we  before  men- 
tioned, he  had  observed  a  kind  of  neutrality  with  respect  to 
the  Sacred  War,  and  he  seemed  to  wait  for  an  opportunity  of 
declaring  himself;  that  is,  till  both  parties  should  have  weak- 
^ru  i!;^^"^s^'^f  by  a  long  war,  which  equally  exhausted  both 
ihe  Ihebans  had  now  very  much  abated  from  that  haui^hti- 
ness  and  those  ambitious  views,  with  which  the  victories  of 
iipamiiiondas  had  inspired  them. 

The  instant,  therefore,  they  requested  tbr  alliance  of  Philip 
he  resolved  to  espouse  the  interest  of  that  republic,  in  oddo- 
sition  to  the  Phocians.     He  had  not  lost  sight  of  the  project 
he  had  lormed  of  obtaining  an  entrance  into  Greece;  in  or- 
der  to  niake  himself  master  of  it.     To  give  success  to  his 
design,  It  was  proper  for  him  to  declare  in  favour  of  one  of 
the  two  parties,  which  at  that  time  divided  all  Greece;  that 
IS  cither  for  the  Thebans,  or  the  Athenians  and  Spartans. 
lie  was  not  so  void  of  sense,  as  to  imagine,  that  the  latter 
party  would  assist  his  design  of  carrying  his  arms  into  Greece. 
He  therefore  had  no  more  to  do,  but  to  join  the  Thebans, 
who  offered  themselves  voluntarily  to  him,  and  who  stood  in 
need  ol  Philip's  power,  to  support  themselves  in  their  de- 
clining condition  :  he  therefore  declared  at  once  in  their  fa- 
vour.    But,  to  give  a  specious  colour  to  his  arms,  besides  the 
gratitude  he  affected  to  feel,  at  the  heart,  for  Thebes,  in  which 
he  had  been  educated,  he  also  pretended  to  make  an  honour 
ol  the  zeal  with  which  he  was  fired,  with  regard  to  the  vio- 
lated god  :  and  was  very  glad  to  pass  for  a  religious  prince, 
who  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  god,  and  of  the  terfi- 
ple  of  Delphos,  m  order  to  conciliate,  by  that  means,  the  es- 
teem and  friendship  of  the  Greeks. 

There  was  nothing  Philip  had  more  at  heart,  than  to  seize 
1  hermopylae,  as  it  opened  him  a  passage  into  Greece;  to  ap- 
propriate all  the  honour  of  the  Sacred  War  to  himself,  as  if 


5l 

1 


!•■■ 


222  ■    THE  HISTORY 

he  had  been  piincipal  in  that  affair;  and  to  Pr^^^^;; j^v!? 
Pvthkn  games.    He  was  therefore  desirous  of  aiding  the  The. 
bans     and,  by  their  means,  to  obtain  possession  of  Phoci.. 
BuT  in  order  to  put  his  double  design  in  e^^cution,  it  was 
necesTai  V  for  him  to  keep  it  secret  from  the  Athenians,  who 
-  rad\a:Lly  dedared  war'against  Thebes :  and  who  J>i^man^^ 
years,  had  been  in  alliance  with  the  Phocians.     His  business, 
Mierefere,  was  to  make  them  change  their  measures, by  placing 
oJher  obi;cts  in  their  views  ;  and,  on  this  occasion,  the  politics 
of  PhiliD,  in  a  wonderful  manner,  succeeded. 

The  A  henians,  who  began  to  grow  tired  of  a  war,  which 
was  very  burthen'some,  and  of  little  benefit  to  them  had  com- 
mtsslone'd  Ctesiphon  and  Phyrnon,to  sound  the  intenuo- of 
Philip,  and,  in  what  manner,  he  stood  disposed,  m  regard  to 
neace  These  related,  that  Philip  did  not  appear  averse  to 
ftrand  that  he  even  expressed  a  great  affection  for  the  com- 

'"^  Upon  \t^  the  Athenians  resolved  to  send  a  solemn  embasr 
sy  to^nquire  more  strictly  into  the  truth  of  thmgs,  and  to 
nrocure  the  last  explanations,  previously  necessary  to  so  im- 
Sonant  a  negotiation.  ^sclLes  and  Demosthenes  were 
^mong  the  te'n  ambassadors,  who  brought  back  Uiree  from 
Philin— \ntipater,  Parmenio,  and  Eurylochus.  All  the  ten 
Txet^ed  their^ommission  v'ery  faithfully,  and  gave  a  very 
good  account  of  it.  Upon  this  they  were  ™df  d^^^^^^^^^ 
back,  with  full  powers  to  conclude  a  peace,  and  to  ratity  it 

^^t  was  then,  that  Demosthenes,  who,  m  his  first  embassy 
had   met  some  Athenian    captives  in  Macedonia,  and  had 
p?om"ed  to  return  and  ransom  them  at  his  own  expense  en- 
.      deavoured   to  enable  himself  to  keep  his  word :  and,  m  the 
mean  time,  advised  his  colleagues  to  embark  with  the  utmos 
eypedicjon   as  the  republic  had  commanded;  and  to^^it,  as 
uon  as  po'ssible,  upon  Philip,  in  what  P^^^^^^^^'^  .^^^"^  j^,^^ 
be      However,  inslead  of  making  a  speedy  despatch,  as  they 
had  been  desired,  they  went  like  ambassadors  ;  proceeded  to 
MaceZia"    lai'^d  ;  Itaid  three  months  in  that  -n^^^^^^^^^^^ 
^uve  Philip  time  to  gain  possession  of  several  othei  stiong 
nlaces  beloneinc  to  the  Athenians,  in  1  hrace. 
^   A    last,  mc^eting  with  the  king  of  Macedonia,  t^ey  agreed 
wifh  him'upon  artides  of  peace:  but  he,  ^^^^''^^rre^^^^^ 
asleep,  with  the  specious  pretence  of  a  treaty,  deferred  the 
ratification  of  it,  from  day  to  day.     In  the  mean  time    he 
?o^nd  means  to  corrupt  the  ambassadors,  one  after  another 
by  presents,  Demosthenes  excepted ;  who,  bemg  but  one,  op- 
posed his  colleagues  in  vain. 


OF  GREECE. 


22J 


Philip,  being  suffered  quietly  to  pursue  his  march  into 
Phocis,  gained  the  straits  of  Thermopylae ;  but  did  not  im- 
mediately discover  what  use  he  intended  to  make  of  his  en- 
trance into  Greece :  but  went  on,  according  to  his  agreemeni 
with  the  Thebans,  to  put  an  end  to  the  Phocian  war,  which 
he  easily  effected.  His  name  and  appearance  struck  such  a 
terror  among  the  Phocians,  that,  though  they  had  lately  re- 
ceived a  reinforcement  of  a  thousand  heavy  mmeu  S]»artan.s 
under  the  command  of  their  king  Archidamub,  they  declined 
giving  him  battle;  and  sent  to  treat  wuh  lum,  or  rather  to 
submit  themselves  to  any  terms  that  he  would  give  them. 

He  allowed  Phalicus  to  retire,  with  eight  thousand  men, 
oeing  mercenaries,  into  Peloponnesus  ;  but  the  rest,  who  were 
the  inhabitants  of  Phocis,  were  left  at  his  mercy.  As  the 
disposing  of  them  was  a  matter  wherein  Greece  in  general 
w^s  concerned,  he  did  not  think  fit  to  act  in  it,  by  his  own 
private  authority ;  but  referred  it  to  ihe  Amphictyons,  M'howk 
he  caused  to  be  assembled  for  that  purpose.  But  they  were 
so  much  under  his  influence,  that  they  served  only  to  give  a 
sanction  to  his  determinations. 

They  decreed,  that  all  the  cities  of  Phocis  should  be  de- 
molished ;  that  those  persons  who  had  fled,  as  being  princi- 
pally concerned  in  sacrilege,  should  be  stigmatised  as  ac- 
cursed, and  proscribed  as  outlaws  :  that  those  who  remained 
as  inhabitants,  should  be  dispersed  in  the  villages,  and  obliged 
to  pay,  out  of  their  lands,  a  yearly  tribute  of  sixty  talents, 
until  the  whole  of  what  had  been  taken  out  of  the  temple, 
should  be  restored  :  they  were  likewise  adjudged  to  lose  their 
seat  in  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  wherein  they  had  a 
double  voice.  This,  Philip  got  transferred  to  himself,  which 
was  a  very  material  point:  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  the 
principal  step  towards  his  gaining  that  authority,  which  he 
afterwards  exercised,  in  the  affairs  of  Greece.  At  the  same 
tinie,  he  acquired,  in  conjunction  with  the  Thebans  and  Thes- 
salians,  the  superintendency  of  the  Pythian  games,  which  the 
Coriiithians  had  forfeited,  for  having  taken  part  with  the 
Phocians. 

Philip,  having,  by  these  plausible  methods,  succeeded  in 
this  expedition,  did  not  think  it  advisable,  by  attempting  any 
thing  further,  at  present,  to  sully  the  glory  he  had  acquired 
by  it,  or  to  incense  the  body  of  the  Grecians  against  him;, 
wherefore,  he  returned,  in  a  triumphant  manner,  to  his  do- 
minions.  After  settling  his  conquests,  at  home,  he  marched 
into  Thessaly ;  and,  having  extirpated  the  remains  of  tyranny 
in  the  several  cities  there,  he  not  only  confirmea  the  Thessa- 
Hans  in  his  interest,  but  gained  over  many  of  their  neighbours 


224 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


225 


It  was  u^-ion  this  occasion,  that  Philip  is  remarked  for  an 
act  of  private  justice,  which  far  outweighs  his  public  celebrity. 
A  soldier,  in  the  Macedonian  army,  had,  in  many  instances, 
distinguished  himself  by  extraordinary  acts  of  valour,  and 
had  received  knany  marks  of  Philip's  favour  and  approbation. 
On  some  occat^ion,  he  embarked  on  board  a  vessel  which  was 
wrecked  by  a  violent  storm,  and  he  himself  was  cast  on  the 
shore,  nelpleab  and  naked,  and  scarcely  with  the  appearance 
of  life.  A  Macedonian,  whose  lands  were  contiguous  to  the 
sea,  came  opportunely  to  be  witness  of  his  distress ;  and,  with 
all  humane  and  charitable  tenderness,  flew  to  the  relief  of  the 
unhappy  stranger.  He  bore  him  to  his  house,  laid  him  in  his 
own  bea,  revived,  cherished,  comforted,  and,  for  forty  days, 
supplied  nim  freely  with  all  the  necessaries  and  conveniences 
which  his  languishing  condition  could  require.  The  soldier, 
thus  happily  rescued  from  death,  was  incessant  in  the  warmest 
expressions  of  gratitude  to  his  benefactor,  assured  him  of  his 
interest  with  the  king,  and  of  his  power  and  resolution  of  ob- 
taining for  him  from  the  royal  bounty,  the  noble  returns  which 
such  extraordinary  benevolence  had  merited.  He  was  now 
completely  recovered,  and  his  kind  host  supplied  him  with 
money,  to  pursue  his  journey. 

Some  time  afterwards,  he  presented  himself  before  the 
king:  he  recounted  his  misfortunes;  magnified  his  services; 
and  this  inhuman  wretch,  who  had  looked  with  an  eye  of  envy 
on  the  possessions  of  the  man  who  had  preserved  his  life, 
was  now  so  abandoned  to  all  sense  of  gratitude,  as  to  request 
the  king  would  bestow  upon  him  the  house  and  lands,  where 
he  had  been  so  tenderly  and  kindly  entertained.  Unhappily, 
Philip,  without  examination,  inconsiderately  and  precipitately 
granted  his  infamous  request;  and  this  soldier, now  returned 
to  his  preserver,  repaid  his  goodness,  by  driving  him  from  his 
settlement,  and  taking  immediate  possession  of  all  the  fruits 
of  his  honest  industry. 

The  poor  man,  stung  with  this  instance  of  unparalleled 
ingratitude  and  insensibility,  boldly  determined,  instead  of 
submitting  to  his  wrongs,  to  seek  relief,  and,  in  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Philip,  represented  his  own,  and  the  soldier's  con- 
duct, in  a  lively  and  affecting  manner.  The  king  was  fired 
with  indignation :  he  ordered  that  justice  should  be  done, 
wiihout  delay ;  that  the  possessions  should  be  immediately 
restored  to  the  man  whose  charitable  offices  had  been  thus 
horribly  repaid;  and,  having  seized  this  soldier,  caused  these 
words  to  be  branded  on  his  forehead — The  Ungrateful  Guest ; 
a  character,  infamous  in  every  age,  and  among  all  nations,  but 


(>articularly  among  the  Greeks ;  who,  from  the  earliest  times 
were  most  scrupulously  observant  of  the  laws  of  hospitality. 

Having  strengthened  himself,  in  these  parts,  he  went,  the 
next  year,  into  Thrace  ;  where  he  had  formed  a  design  against 
the  Chersonese.  This  peninsula  had,  with  some  little  interrup- 
tion, been,  for  many  years,  in  the  hands  of  the  Athenians ;  but 
Cotys,  as  being  king  of  the  country,  had  lately  wrested  it  from 
them,  and  left  it  in  succession  to  his  son  Chersobleptes.  Not 
'>eing  able  to  defend  himself  against  Philip,  the  latter  gave  it 
back  to  the  Athenians,  reserving  to  himself  only  Cardia,  the 
capital  city.  But  Philip  having,  soon  afterwards,  spoiled  him 
of  the  rest  of  his  dominions,  the  Cardians,  for  fear  of  falling 
again  under  the  power  of  the  Athenians,  threw  themselves 
under  his  protection. 

Diophites,  the  chief  of  the  Athenian  colony,  lately  sent  t6 
the  Chersonese,  considered  this  proceeding  of  Philip,  in  sup- 
porting the  Cardians,  as  an  act  of  hostility  ag^i'nst  Athens; 
whereupon,  he  invaded  the  maritime  parts  of  Thrace,  and 
carried  away  a  great  deal  of  booty.  Philip,  being,  at  this 
time,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  country,  was  not  in  a  condition 
to  do  himself  justice;  but  he  wrote  to  complain  of  it  at 
Athens,  as  an  infraction  of  the  peace ;  and  his  creatures  there 
were  not  wanting,  on  their  part,  to  aggravate  the  charge 
against  Diopithes,  as  having  acted  without  orders,  and  taking 
it  upon  himself  to  renew  the  war :  they  likewise  accused  him 
of  committing  acts  of  piracy,  and  of  laying  their  allies  under 
contribution. 

But,  whatever  grounds  there  were  for  this  part  of  the  accu- 
sation, the  government  t»f  Athens  was  principally  to  blame. 
Having  no  proper  fund  for  the  wars,  they  sent  out  their  gene- 
rals without  money  or  provisions,  and  left,  them  to  maintain 
themselves,  and  yet  made  them  responsible  for  any  miscar- 
riages that  should  happen,  for  want  of  their  being  better 
supplied.  This  was  a  great  discouragement  to  the  service, 
and  put  those  who  were  employed  in  it  upon  pillaging  and 
plundering,  in  such  a  manner  as  they  would  otherwise  have 
been  ashamed  of.  Demosthenes,  in  an  harangue  made  upon  the 
state  of  the  Chersonese,  undertook  the  defence  of  Diopithes. 

Philip,  however,  was  no  way  intimidated  at  the  wordy  re- 
sistance of  his  eloquent  antagonist :  he  went  on,  with  artful 
industry,  quelling  those,  by  his  power,  who  were  unable  to 
resist,  and  those,  by  his  presents,  whom  he  was  unable  to 
oppose.  The  divisions  then  subsisting  in  Peloponnesus,  gave 
him  a  pretext  for  intermeddling  in  the  affairs  of  the  Greek 
confederacy.  These  divisions  were  chiefly  owing  to  ihe  Spar- 
tans, who,  having  had  little  share  in  the  late  foreign  transac- 


m 


I 


226 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


tions,  were  recovering  their  strength  at  home;  and,  according: 
to  their  usual  practice,  as  they  increased  in  power,  made  use 
of  it  to  insult  and  oppress  their  neighbours. 

The  Argives  and  Messenians  being,  at  this  time,  persecuted 
by  them,  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Philip :  and 
the  Thebans  joining  with  them,  they  altogether  formed  a 
powerful  confederacy.  The  natural  balance  against  it,  was  a 
union  between  Athens  and  Sparta ;  which  the  Spartans  pressed 
with  great  earnestness,  as  the  only  means  for  their  common 
security ;  and  Philip  and  the  Thebans  did  all  in  their  power, 
to  prevent  it.  But  Demosthenes,  exerting  himself  upon  this 
occasion,  roused  up  the  Athenians,  and  put  them  so  far  upon 
tlieir  guard,  that,  without  coming  to  an  open  rupture  with 
Philip,  they  obliged  him  to  desist. 

Philip,  however,  did  not,  upon  this  disappointment,  con- 
tinue idle.  Ever  restless  and  enterprising,  he  turned  his  views 
another  way.  He  had  long  considered  the  island  of  Euboea 
as  proper,  from  its  situation,  to  favour  his  designs  against 
Greece ;  and,  in  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign,  had  attempted 
to  gain  possession  of  it.  He  set  every  engine  to  work,  in  order 
to  seize  upon  that  island,  which  he  called  the  shackles  of 

Greece. 

But  it  nearly  concerned  the  Athenians,  on  the  other  side, 
not  to  suffer  it  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  an  enemy,  especially, 
as  it  might  be  joined  to  the  continent  of  Attica,  by  a  bridge ; 
however,  that  people,  according  to  their  usual  custom,  re- 
mained indolent,  whilst  Philip  pursi  ed  his  conquests.  The 
latter,  who  was  continually  attentive  and  vigilant, endeavoured 
to  open  a  communication  with  the  island,  and,  by  dint  of  pres- 
ents,  bribed  those  who  had  the  greatest  authority  in  it.  At 
the  request  of  certain  of  the  inhabitants,  he  sent  some  troops 
privately  thither,  seized  several  strong  places,  dismantled 
Portmos,  a  very  important  fortress  in  Euboea,  and  established 
three  tyrants  or  kings  over  the  country. 

The  Athenians  were  conjured,  in  this  distressing  juncture, 
by  one  Plutarch,  who  was,  at  that  time,  upon  the  island,  to 
come  and  deliver  the  inhabitants  from  the  yoke,  which  Philip 
was  going  to  impose  upon  them.  Upon  this,  they  despatched 
a  few  troops  thither,  under  the  command  of  Phocion,  a  gene- 
ral of  whom  great  expectations  were  formed,  and  whose 
conduct  well  deserved  the  favourable  opinion  of  the  public. 

This  man  would  have  done  honour  to  the  early  and  least 
corrupted  times  of  the  Athenian  state.  His  manners  were 
formed  in  the  academy,  upon  the  models  of  the  most  exact 
and  rigid  virtue.  It  was  said,  that  no  Athenian  ever  saw  him 
laugh  or  we«p,  or  deviate,  in  any  instance,  from  the  mosf 


227 


rndlr  A  K  -^  ^"'^  composure.  He  leamed  the  art  of  war 
under  Chabrias,  and  frequently  moderated  the  excesses,  and 
corrected  the  errors,  of  that  general ;  his  humanity  he  admired 
and  imitated,  and  taught  him  to  exert  it  in  a  mo^re  exten  ve 
and  liberal  manner. 

When  he  had  received  his  directions  to  sail  with  twenty 
ll?"'  'u  wk"'''  .'^''  .contributions  of  the  allies  and  dependent 
le^'L.     ^^•'  ^*^?^^«•:^?"  «^iJ  Phocion;  "if  I  am  t^o  mee 
.hem  as  enemies,  it  is  insufficient :  if  I  am  sent  to  friends  and 
allies,  a  single  vessel  will  serve."  He  bore  the  severities  of  a 
miluary    ife,  with  so  much  ease,  that,  if  he  ever  appeared 
warmly  clothed,  the  soldiers  at  once  pronounced  itthe^si^o 
a  remarkably  bad  season.     His  outward  appearance  was  for- 
bidding,  but  his  conversation  easy  and  obliging;  and  all  his 
words  and  actions  expressed  the  utmost  affection  and  benevo- 

In  popular  assemblies,  his  lively,  close,  and  natural  manner 
ol  .speaking  seemed  the  echo  of  the  simplicity  and  integrity 
of  his  mmd,  and  had  frequently  a  greater  effect,  than  even 
the  dignity  and  energy  of  Demosthenes ;  who  called  him  the 
pruner  of  his  periods.  He  studied  only  good  sense  and  plain 
reasoning,  and  despised  every  adventitious  ornament.  In  an 
assenibly,  when  he  was  to  address  the  people,  he  was  sur- 
prised by  a  friend  wrapped  up  in  thought :  "  I  am  consider- 
mg,  said  he,  whether  I  cannot  retrench  some  part  of  my 
intended  address."  ^ 

He  was  sensible  of  the  ill  conduct  of  his  countrymen,  and 
ever  treated  them  with  the  greatest  severity.  He  desired  their 
censures;  and,  so  far  did  he  affect  to  despise  their  applause, 
that,  av  a  time  when  his  sentiments  exto/ted  their  approbation, 
he  turned  about  in  surprise,  and  asked  a  friend,  "  If  any  thine 
weak  or  impertinent  had  escaped  him?" 

His  sense  of  the  degeneracy  of  Athens,  made  him  fond  of 
pacific  measures.  He  saw  the  designs  of  Philip,  but  imagined 
that  the  state  was  too  corrupted,  to  give  him  any  effectual  op- 
position ;  so  that  he  was  of  the  number  of  those  men,  who, 
accordmg  to  Demosthenes,  in  his  third  Philippic  oration 
abandoned  the  interests  of  the  state,  not  corruptly  or  ignorant- 
ly,  but  from  a  desperate  purpose  of  yielding  to  the  fate  of  a 
consutution,  thought  to  be  irrecoverably  lost. 

He  was,  consequently,  always  of  the  party  opposite  to  De- 
mosthenes ;  and,  having  been  taught,  by  experience,  to  sus-  , 
pcct  the  popular  leaders,  considered  his  earnestness  to  rouse 
the  Athenians  to  arms,  as  an  artiEce  to  embroil  the  state,  and, 
by  th^t  means  to  gain  an  influence  in  the  assembly.  "  Pho- 
cion," said  Demosthenes,  "  the  people,  in  some  mad  fit,  will 


! 


«2S 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


22B 


certainly  sacrifice  thee  to  their  fury."     « Yes,"  replied  he, 
"  and  you  will  be  their  victim,  if  ever  they  have  an  interval 

of  reason."  .       ,  .    .    , 

Yet  they  often  prevailed  on  him  to  act  against  his  judy;ment, 
though  never  to  speak  against  his  conscience.  He  never  re- 
fused or  declined  the  command,  whatever  might  be  his  opin- 
ion of  the  expedition.  Forty-five  times,  was  he  chosen  to 
lead  their  armies;  generally  in  his  absence,  and  always  with- 
out the  least  application.  They  knew  his  merit,  and,  in  the 
hour  of  danger,  forgot  that  severity  with  which  he  usually 
treated  their  inclinations  and  opinions. 

It  was  to  him,  the  Athenians  gave  the  command  of  the 
for-es  sent  to  the  aid  of  Plutarch  of  Eretria.     But  this  traitor 
repaid  his  benefactors  with  ingratitude :  he  set  up  the  stand- 
ard against  them,  and  endeavoured  openly  to  repulse  the  very 
army  which  he  had  requested.     However,  Phocion  was  not 
at  a  loss  how  to  act,  upon  this  unforeseen  perfidy  :  he  pursued 
his  enterprise,  won  a  battle,  and  drove  Plutarch  from  Eretria. 
These  disappointments,  however,  no  way  intimidated  Philip, 
or  rendered  him  the  least  remiss  in  prosecuting  his  original 
design.     He  changed  the  method  ot  his  attack,  and  sought 
an  opportunity  of  distressing  Athens  another  way.    He  knew, 
that  this  city,  from  the  barrenness  of  Attica,  stood  in  great- 
er want  of  foreign  corn,  than  any  other.     To  dispose  at  dis- 
cretion, of  their  transports,  and,  by  that  means,  starve  the 
Athenians,  he  marched  towards  Thrace,  from  whence  that 
city  imported  the  greater  part  of  its  provisions,  with  an  in- 
tention to  besiege  Perinthus  and  Byzantium.     To  keep  his 
kingdom  in  obedience,  during  his  absence,  he  left  his  son 
Alexander  behind,  wivh  sovereign  authority,  though  ^e  was 
only  fifteen  years  old. 

This  young  prince  gave,  even  at  that  time,  some  proofs  of 
his  courage ;  having  defeated  certain  neighbouring  states,  sub- 
ject to  Macedonia,  who  had  considered  the  king's  absence  as 
a  proper  time  for  executing  the  design  they  had  formed  of 
revolting.     This  happy  success  of  Alexander's  first  expedi- 
tions, was  highly   agreeable  to  his  father,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  an  earnest  of  what  mig«ht  be  expected  from  him.     But, 
fearing,  lest,  allured  by  this  dangerous  bait,  he  should  aban- 
don himself  inconsiderately  to  his  vivacity  and  fire,  he^  sent 
for  him,  in  order  to  become  his  master,  and  form  him,  in 
person,  for  the  trade  of  war. 
'      In  the  mean  time,  Philip  opened  the  campaign  with  the 
siege  f)f  Perinthus,  a  considerable  city  of  Thrace,  and  firmly 
attached  to  the  Athenians.     It  was  assisted  from  Byzantium; 
a  neighbouring  city,  which  threw  in  succours,  as  occasion  re- 


quired.    Philip,  therefore,  resolved  to  besiege  both,  at  the 
same  time.     Still,  however,  he  was  desirous  to  appear  cau- 
tious and  tender  of  displeasing  the  Athenians ;  whom  he  en 
deavoured  to  amuse  with  the  most  profound  respect,  mixed 
with  well-timed  abuses,  and  the  most  flattering  submission. 

Upon  this  occasion,  he  wrote  them  a  letter,  reproaching 
them,  in  the  strongest  terms,  for  their  infraction  of  treaties, 
and  his  own  religious  observance  of  them.  "  In  the  times  ol 
great  enmity,"  says  he,  "  the  most  you  did  was  to  fit  out  ships 
of  war  against  me,  and  to  seize  and  sell  the  merchants  that 
came  to  trade  in  my  dominions ;  but  now,  you  carry  your 
hatred  and  injustice  to  such  prodigious  lengths,  as  even  to 
send  ambassadors  to  the  king  of  Persia,  to  make  him  declare 
against  me." 

This  letter  gave  the  orators,  who  undertook  Philip's  de- 
fence, a  fine  opportunity  of  justifying  him  to  the  people.  De- 
mosthenes alone  stood  firm  ;  and  still  continued  to  expose  his 
artful  designs,  and  to  break  down  all  those  laboured  schemes, 
which  were  undertaken  to  deceive  the  people.  Sensible,  on 
this  occasion,  how  necessary  it  was  to  remove  the  first  im- 
pressions which  the  perusal  of  this  letter  might  make,  he  im- 
mediately ascended  the  tribune,  and  harangued  the  people, 
with  all  the  thunder  of  his  eloquence. 

He  told  them,  that  the  letter  was  written  in  a  style  no: 
suitable  to  the  people  of  Athens;  that  it  was  a  plain  decla 
ration  of  war ;  that  Philip  had  long  since  made  the  same  de 
claration,  by  his  actions ;  and,  that,  by  the  peace  he  had  con 
eluded  with  them,  he  meant  nothing  further  than  a  bare  ces- 
sation of  arms,  in  order  to  gain  time,  and  to  take  them  more 
unprepared.     He  then  proceeded  to  his  usual  topic  of  re- 
proving them  for  their  sloth,  for  suffering  themselves  to  be 
deluded  by  their  orators  who  were  in  Philip's  pay. 

"  Convinced  by  these  truths,"  continued  he, "  O  Athenians ! 
and  strongly  persuaded  that  we  ran  no  longer  be  allowed  to 
affirm  that  we  enjoy  peace,  (for  Philip  has  now  declared  war 
against  us,  by  his  letter,  and  has  done  the  same  by  his  con- 
duct) you  ought  not  to  spare  either  the  public  treasure,  or 
the  possessions  of  private  persons ;  but,  when  occasion  shall 
require,  haste  to  your  respective  standards,  and  set  abler  gen- 
erals at  your  head,  than  those  you  have  hitherto  employed ; 
for  no  one  among  you  ought  to  imagine  that  the  same  men 
who  have  ruined  your  affairs,  will  have  abilities  to  restore 
^hem  to  their  former  happy  situation. 

"Think  how  infamous  it  is,  that  a  man  from  Maccdon 
should  contemn  dangt^  rs,  to  such  a  degree,  that,  merely  to  ag^ 
grandise  his  empire,  he  should  rush  into  the  midst  of  com- 


$30 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


231 


bats,  and  return  from  battle  covered  with  wounds ;  and  that 
the  Athenians,  whose  hereditary  right  is  to  obey  no  man,  but 
to  impose  law  on  others,  sword  in  hand ;  that  Athenians,  I 
say,  merely  through  dejection  of  spirit  and  indolence,  should 
degenerate  from  the  glory  of  their  ancestors,  and  abandon 
the  interest  of  their  country  !" 

To  this  expostulation,  Phocion  readily  offered  his  voice 
and  opinion.  He  urged  the  incapacity  of  the  generals  al- 
ready chosen ;  and,  in  consequence  of  his  advice,  he  himself 
was  appointed  general  of  the  army  that  was  to  be  sent  against 
Philip,  who  was  still  besieging  Byzantium. 

Phocion  having  led  his  troops  to  the  succour  of  the  Byzan- 
tians,  the  inhabitants,  on  his  arrival,  opened  their  gates  to 
him  v/ith  joy,  and  lodged  his  soldiers  in  their  houses,  as  their 
own  brothers  and  children.  The  Athenian  officers  and  sol- 
diers, struck  with  the  confidence  reposed  in  them,  behaved 
with  the  utmos:  prudence  and  modesty,  and  were  entirely  ir- 
reproachable in  their  conduct :  nor  were  they  less  admired 
for  their  courage ;  and,  in  all  the  attacks  they  sustained,  dis- 
covered the  utmost  intrepidity,  which  danger  seemed  only  to 
increase. 

Phocion's  j)rudence,  seconded  by  the  bravery  of  his  troops, 
soon  forced  Philip  to  abandon  his  design  upon  Byzantium 
and  Perinthus.  He  was  beaten  out  of  the  Hellespont,  which 
very  much  diminished  his  fame  and  glory ;  for  hitherto  he 
had  been  ^bought  invincible,  and  nothing  had  been  able  to 
oppose  him.  Phocion  took  some  of  his  ships ;  recovered  many 
fortresses  which  l.e  had  garrisoned  ;  and,  having  made  seve- 
ral descents  upon  different  parts  of  his  territories,  he  plun- 
dered all  the  open  country,  till  a  body  of  forces  assembling 
to  check  his  progress,  he  was  obliged  to  retire. 

Philip,  after  having  been  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  By- 
zantium, marched  against  Atheas,  king  of  Scythia,  from 
whom  he  had  received  some  personal  cause  of  discontent, 
and  took  his  son  with  him  in  this  expedition.  Though  the 
Scythians  had  a  very  numerous  army,  he  defeated  them,  with- 
out any  difficulty;  he  got  a  very  great  booty,  which  consist- 
ed, not  in  gold  and  silver,  the  use  and  value  of  which  the 
Sc7thians  were  not  as  yet  so  unhappy  as  to  know,  but  in  cat- 
tlei  horses,  and  a  great  number  of  women  and  children. 

/.this  return  from  Scythia,  the  Triballi,  a  people  of  Moesia, 
disputed  the  pass  with  him,  laying  claim  to  pait  of  the  plun- 
der which  he  was  carrying  off.  Philip  was  forced  to  come 
to  a  battle ;  and  a  very  bloody  one  was  fought,  in  which  great 
numbers,  on  each  side,  were  killed :  the  king  himself  was 
wounded  in  the  thigh,  and  with  the  same  thrust  had  his  hori^e 


killed  under  him.  Alexander  flew  to  his  father's  aid,  and, 
covering  him  with  his  shield,  killed  or  put  to  flight  all  who 
attacked  him. 

The  Athenians  had  considered  the  siege  of  Byzantium  as 
an  absolute  rupture,  and  an  open  declaration  of  war.  The 
king  of  Macedon,  who  was  apprehensive  of  the  consequen- 
ces of  it,  and  dreaded  very  much  the  power  of  the  Athenians, 
whose  hatred  he  had  brought  upon  himself,  made  overtures 
of  peace,  in  order  to  soften  their  resentment.  Phocion,  lit- 
tle suspicious,  and  apprehensive  of  the  uncertainty  of  milita- 
ry wants,  was  of  opinion  that  the  Athenians  should  accept 
his  offers :  but  Demosthenes,  who  had  studied,  more  than 
Phocion,  the  genius  and  character  of  Philip,  being  persuaded, 
that,  according  to  his  usual  custom,  his  only  view  was  to  im- 
pose upon  the  Athenians,  prevented  their  listening  to  his  pa- 
cific proposals. 

When  Philip  found  the  Athenians  would  not  treat  with 
him,  and  that  they  were  acting  offensively  agamst  him,  espe- 
cially at  sea,  where  they  blocked  up  his  ports,  and  put  an  en- 
tire stop  to  his  commerce,  he  began  to  form  new  alliances 
against  them,  particularly  with  the  Thebans  and  Thessalians; 
without  whom,  he  knew  he  could  not  keep  open  the  passage 
into  Greece.  At  the  same  time,  he  was  sensible,  that  his 
engaging  these  powers  to  act  directly  against  Athens,  and  in 
his  own  personal  quarrel,  would  have  so  bad  an  aspect,  that 
they  would  not  easily  accede  to  it.  For  which  reason,  he 
endeavoured,  secretly,  to  create  new  disturbances  in  Greece, 
that  he  might  take  such  a  part  in  them  a'fe  would  best  answer 
his  views ;  and  when  the  flame  was  kindled,  his  point  was  to 
appear  rather  to  be  called  in  as  an  assistant,  than  to  act  as  a 
principal. 

By  the  result  of  his  machinations,  he  soon  found  an  op- 
portunity of  raising  divisions  between  the  Locrians  of  Am- 
phissa,  and  their  capital  city.  They  were  accused  of  having 
profaned  a  spot  of  sacred  ground  (which  lay  very  near  the 
temple  of  Delphos)  by  ploughing  it,  as  the  Phocianshad  done, 
upon  a  former  occasion.  In  order  to  produce  and  widen  this 
breach,  Philip  employed  ^Eschines,  the  orator,  who,  by  bribes, 
was  entirely  devoted  to  him,  to  harangue,  at  the  assembly  of 
the  Amphictyons,  against  this  outrage  upon  the  religion  of 
their  country. 

-lEschines  was  a  man  of  great  abilities,  and  second  in  elo- 
quence only  to  Demosthenes.  He  had  now  a  fair  opportuni- 
ty of  raising  commotions,  by  appearing  interested  only  for 
his  country,  and  zealous  for  the  glory  and  defence  of  Athens. 
With  a  passionate  warmth,  which  is  frequently  the  effect  of 

U2  '' 


932 


THE  HISTORY 


artifice,  as  well  as  of  real  patriotism,  and  which  is  most  like- 
ly to  deceive,  and  more  particularly  in  popular  assemblies, 
by  being  considered  as  the  indication  of  sincerity,  and  the 
overflowing  of  a  heart  honestly  affected,  he  boldly  delivered 

his  opinions.  ,  ,    «     .v. 

Plis  sentiments  were  echoed  through  the  assembly, l)y  the 
friends  of  Philip;  the  tumult  was  kept  up,  to  destroy  all 
remonstrances  of  caution  and  policy,  and  a  resolution  was 
passed,  that  a  deputation  should  be  sent  to  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  inviting  him  to  assist  Apollo  and  the  Amphictyons, 
and  to  repel  the  outrages  of  the  impious  Amphissceans ;  and 
"i.r»hpr  to  dpxlare.  that  he  was  constituted,  by  all  the  Greeks, 
A  mcmoer  oi  vac  couiicn  ot  Amphictyons,  and  general  ?nd 
commander  of  their  forces,  with  full  and  unlimited  powers. 

This  welcome  invitation  and  commission,  the  fruit  of  all 
his  secret  practices,  Philip  received  in  Thrace,  while  he  was 
yet  on  his  return  to  Macedon.  He  bowed,  with  an  affectionate 
reverence,  to  the  venerable  council,  and  declared  his  readiness 
to  execute  their  orders.  The  inferior  states  of  Greece,  and 
all  those  whose  simplicity  and  weakness  rendered  them  in- 
sensible to  the  designs  now  forming  by  Philip,  entirely  ap-' 
proved  of  the  act  of  the  Amphictyons ;  and  of  the  nomination 
of  a  orince  to  the  command  of  their  forces,  so  eminent  and 
illustrious  for  his  piety,  and  so  capable  of  executing  the  ven- 
geance of  Heaven. 

At  Sparta,  and  at  Athens,  this  event  was  considered  m  a 
different  manner.     Sparta,  though  possessed  only  of  a  small 
part  of  her  ancient  greatness,  yet  still  retained  her  pride,  and 
seemed  to  have  looked  with  a  sullen  indignation  at  the  honours 
paid  to  Macedon :  Athens  had  been  long  taught  to  dread  the 
policy  of  Philip  ;  and  now,  her  great  popular  leader  repeatedly 
urged  the  necessity  of  suspicion ;  and  represented  all  the  late 
transactions  in  the  Amphictyonic  council,  as  the  effects  of 
Philip's  intrigues,  and  a  design  against  Greece  in  general, 
but  more  particularly  against  the  welfare  and  liberty  of  Athens. 
To  counteract  the  zeal  of  Demosthenes,  and  to  prevent  the 
effects  of  his  incessant  remonstrances,  the  minds  of  the  people 
>vere  alarmed  with  oracles  and  predictions,  uttered  with  all 
solemnity,  from  the  sacred  tripod,  and  reported  to  the  Athe- 
nians with  all  the  veneration  due  to  the  dictates  of  Apollo. 
Vengeance  was  pronounced  against  all  those  who  should  pre- 
sume to  oppose  the  king  of  Macedon,  the  destined  instrument 
of  divine  justice;  and  the  people  were  exhorted  not  to  suffer 
artful  and  designing  orators,  and  popular  leaders,  to  seduce 
them  to  their  ruin. 

In  the  mean  time,  Philip  immediately  got  his  troops  lo- 


OF  GREECE. 


233 


gethnr ;  and,  with  all  the  show  of  religious  veneration,  began 
to  march,  in  order  to  chastise  the  irreverent  Locrians.  But 
he  had  far  different  aims :  and,  instead  of  proceeding  upon 
so  ridiculous  a  commission,  made  a  sudden  turn,  and  seized 
upon  Elatea,  a  capital  city  of  Phocis,  which  was  very  well 
situated  for  awing  the  Thebans,  of  whom  he  began  to  grow 
jealous,  and  for  preparing  his  way  to  Athens.  But,  by  so  ex- 
traordinary a  step  as  this,  he  fairly  threw  off  the-mask,  and 
bade  defiance  to  the  whole  body  of  Grecians. 

Thus,  was  this  enterprising  prince,  suddenly  master  of  a 
port  of  the  utmost  consequence ;  at  the  head  of  an  army,  ca- 
pable of  striking  terror  into  his  opposers ;  at  the  distance  of 
but  two  days  march  from  Attica ;  absolute  commander,  as  it 
were,  of  the  citadel  and  fortress,  both  of  Thebes  and  Athens; 
conveniently  situated  for  receiving  succours  from  Thessaly 
md  Macedon ;  and  entirely  at  liberty,  either  to  give  battle  to 
ihosc  who  might  presume  to  appear  in  arms  against  him,  or 
to  protract  the  war,  to  any  length  that  might  be  found  con- 
irenient. 

The  news  of  Philip's  recent  transaction,  was  quickly  spread 
through  the  adjacent  countries;  and  received  with  all  the 
stupid  and  helpless  astonishment  of  men  roused  from  a  long 
lethargy,  and  awakened  to  a  dreadful  sense  of  their  danger, 
and  of  the  real  designs  of  their  enemy.  It  was  late  in  the  even- 
ing, when  a  courier,  arriving  at  Athens,  appeared  before  the 
Prytanes,  and  pronounced  the  dreadful  tidings,  that  the  king 
of  Macedon  had  taken  possession  of  Elatea. 

These  magistrates,  and  all  the  other  citizens,  were  now  at 
supper,  indulging  themselves  in  the  pleasures  and  gayeties  of 
the  table,  when  the  news,  which  in  an  instant  rung  through 
all  the  city,  roused  them  from  their  state  of  ease,  and  put  an 
end  to  all  their  festivity.  The  streets  and  public  places  were 
instantly  filled  with  a  distracted  concourse ;  every  man,  with 
terror  and  confusion  in  his  countenance ;  and  every  man  so- 
licitous for  an  intermediate  consultation,  on  an  emergency  so 
important  and  alarming. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  succeeding  day,  the  assembly  met,  im- 
pressed with  that  consternation,  which  urgent  danger  natu- 
rally inspires.  The  whole  body  of  the  people  flocked  to  the 
sen  ate- house,  seized  their  places,  and  waited,  with  the  utmost 
anxiety,  for  so  important  a  deliberation.  The  herald,  as  was 
the  custom  at  Athens,  arose,  and  cried  out,  with  a  loud  voice, 
**  Wno,  among  you,  will  ascend  the  tribunal  ?"  All  however 
was  silence,  terror,  and  dismay:  he  again  repeated  the  invita- 
tion; but  still  no  one  rose  up,  though  all  the  generals  and 
orators  were  present.  At  length  Demosthenes,  animated  with 


•<234 


THE  HISTORlt 


Si 


J 


the  greatness  of  the  approaching  danger,  arose,  undaunted 
and  unmoved  in  this  scene  of  horror. 

With  a  countenance  of  serenity,  the  firm  composure  of  a 
patriot,  and  the  sage  discernment  of  a  complete  statesman, 
he  addressed  himself  to  the  assembly,  in  the  following  man- 
ner: "Athenians!  permit  me  to  explain  the  circumstances  of 
that  state,  which  Philip  has  now  seized.  That  portion  of  its 
citizens,  whom  his  gold  could  corrupt,  or  his  artifice  deceive, 
arc  all  at  his  devotion.  What,  then,  is  his  design  ?  By  draw- 
Nng  up  his  forces,  and  displaying  his  powers  on  the  borders  of 
Thebes,  he  hopes  to  inspire  his  adherents  with  confidence  and 
elevation,  and  to  terrify  and  control  his  adversaries,  that  fear 
or  force  may  drive  them  into  those  measures,  which  we  have 
hitherto  opposed. 

"  If,  then,  we  are  resolved  in  this  conjuncture,  to  cherish 
the  remembrance  of  every  act  of  unkindness,  which  the  The- 
bans  have  done  to  Athens ;  if  we  regard  them  with  suspicion, 
as  men  who  have  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  our  enemy ; 
in  the  first  place,  we  shall  act  agreeably  to  Philip's  warmest 
wishes  ;  and  then  I  am  apprehensive,  that  the  party  who  now 
oppose  him,  may  be  brought  over  to  his  interest;  the  whole 
city  submit  unanimously  to  his  direction;  and  Thebes  and 
Macedon,  fall,  with  their  united  force,  on  Attica. 

"Grant  due  attention  to  what  I  shall  now  propose;  let  it 
be  calmly  weighed,  without  dispute  or  cavil,  and  I  doubt  not 
that  my  counsels  may  direct  you  to  the  best  and  most  salutary 
measures,  and  dispel  the  dangers  now  impending  over  the 
state.  What,  then,  do  I  recommend  ?  First,  shake  off  that 
terror  which  has  possessed  your  minds;  and,  instead  of  fear- 
ing for  yourselves,  let  the  Thebans  be  tne  objects  of  your  ap-. 
prehensions ;  they  are  more  immediately  affected ;  they  are 
the  first  to  feel  the  dangers. 

"  In  the  next  place,  all  those  of  the  age  for  military  ser- 
vice, both  infantry  and  cavalry,  should  march  instantly  to 
Eleusis,  that  Greece  may  see  that  you  are  also  assembled  in 
arms;  and  your  friends  in  Thebes  be  emboldened  to  assert 
their  rights,  when  they  are  assured,  that,  as  those  who  have 
sold  their  country  to  the  Macedonians,  have  a  force  at  Elatea 
to  support  them,  so  you  are  ready  to  assist'  the  men  who 
bravely  contend  for  liberty. 

"  In  the  first  place,  I  recommend  to  you  to  nominate  ten 
ambassadors ;  who,  with  the  generals,  may  have  full  authority 
to  determine  the  time,  and  all  other  circumstances,  of  theii 
march.  When  these  ambassadors  arrive  at  Thebes,  how  are 
they  to  conduct  this  great  affair  ?  This  is  a  point  worthy  of 
vour  most  serious  attention.     Make  no  demands  of  the  The 


OF  GREECE. 


235 


bans :  at  this  conjuncture,  it  would  be  dishonourable :  assure 
them  that  your  assistance  is  ready  for  their  acceptance,  as 
you  are  justly  affected  by  their  danger,  and  have  been  so 
happy  as  to  foresee  and  to  guard  against  it. 

"If  they  approve  of  your  sentiments,  and  embrace  your 
overtures,  we  shall  effect  our  great  purpose,  and  act  with  a 
dignity  worthy  of  our  state.  But,  should  it  happen  that  we 
are  not  so  successful,  whatever  misfortunes  they  may  suffer, 
to  themselves  shall  they  be  imputed ;  while  your  conduct  shall 
appear,  in  no  one  instance,  inconsistent  with  the  honour  and 
renown  of  Athens."  • 

This  oration,  delivered  with  ease  and  resolution,  did  not 
want  its  due  effect ;  it  was  received  with  universal  applause, 
and  Demosthenes  himself  was  instantly  chosen  to  head  the 
embassy,  which  he  had  now  proposed.  A  decree,  in  pursuance 
of  his  advice,  was  drawn  up,  in  form ;  with  an  additional 
clause,  that  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  sail  should  be  fitted  out,  to 
cruise  near  Thermopylae. 

In  consequence  of  this,  Demosthenes  set  out  for  Thebes, 
making  the  more  haste,  as  he  was  sensible  that  Philip  might 
overrun  Attica  in  two  days.  Philip,  on  the  other  hand,  in  order 
to  oppose  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  sent  ambassadors  to 
Thebes;  among  whom,  was  Python,  who  particularly  distin- 
guished himself,  by  the  liveliness  of  his  orations.  But  his  per- 
suasive powers  were  far  inferior  to  those  of  Demosthenes, 
who  overcame  all  opposition.  The  masculine  eloquence  of 
Demosthenes,  was  irresistible ;  and  kindled  in  the  souls  of  the 
Thebans,  so  warm  a  zeal  for  their  country,  and  so  'strong  a 
passion  for  freedom,  that  they  were  no  longer  masters  of  them- 
selves ;  laying  aside  all  fear  and  gratitude,  and  all  prudential 
considerations.  ^ 

That  which  animated  Demosthenes,  next  to  his  public 
safety,  was  his  having  to  do  with  a  man  of  Python's  abilities; 
and  he  some  time  afterwards  took  occasion  to  value  himself 
upon  the  victory  he  had  obtained  over  him.  "  I  did  not  give 
way,"  said  he,  "  to  the  boasting  Python,  when  he  would  have 
borne  me  down  with  a  torrent  of  words." — He  gloried  more 
in  the  success  of  this  negociation,  than  of  any  other  in  which 
he  had  been  employed,  and  spoke  of  it  as  his  masterpiece  in 
politics. 

Philip,  quite  disconcerted  by  the  union  of  these  two  na- 
tions, sent  ambassadors  to  the  Athenians,  to  request  them  not 
to  levy  an  armed  force,  but  to  live  in  harmony  with  him. 
However,  they  were  too  justly  alarmed  and  exasperated,  to 
listen  to  any  accommodation;  and  would  no  longer  depend 
on  the  word  of  a  prince,  whose  whole  aim  was  to  deceive. 


t 


236 


THE  HISTORY 


P; 


M 


(       ! 


In  consequence,  preparations  for  war  M-ere  made,  with  the 
utmost   diligence,   and    the   soldiery   discovered    incredible 

ardour. 

However,  many  evil  disposed  persons  endeavoureJ  to  ex- 
tinguish or  damp  it,  by  relating  fatal  omens,  and  terrible  pre- 
dictions, which  the  priestess  of  Delphos  was  said  to  have 
uttered.  But  Demosthenes,  confiding  firmly  in  the  arms  of 
Greece,  and  encouraged  wonderfully  by  the  number  and 
bravery  of  the  troops,  who  desired  only  to  march  against  the 
enemy,  would  not  suffer  them  to  be  amused  with  these  ora- 
cles and  frivolous*predictions. 

It  was  on  this  occasion,  he  said,  the  priestess  Philippised , 
meaning  that  it  was  Philip's  money  that  inspired  the  priestess, 
opened  her  mouth,  and  made  the  god  speak  whatever  she 
thought  proper.  He  bade  the  Thebans  remember  their 
Epaminondas,  and  the  Athenians  their  Pericles  ;  who  consid- 
ered these  oracles  and  predictions  as  idle  scarecrows,  and 
consulted  only  their  reason.  The  Athenian  army  set  out  im- 
mediately, and  marched  to  Eleusis ;  and  the  Thebans,  sur 
prised  at  the  diligence  of  their  confederates,  joined  them,  and 
waited  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

Philip,  on  his  part,  well  knowing  that  the  bravery  and  spirit 
of  his  enemies  wanted  that  direction  which  might  enable  them 
to  improve  their  advantages,  and  conscious  also  of  his  own 
abilities,  and  the  weakness  of  those  generals  who  commanded 
the  Greeks,  determined  to  bring  on  a  general  engagement, 
where  his  superior  skill  must  appear  of  the  greatest  moment. 
For  this  purpose,  he  took  a  favourable  opportunity  of  decamp- 
ing, and  led  his  army  to  the  plain  of  Chaeronea ;  a  name  ren- 
dered famous  by  the  event  of  this  important  contest. 

Here,  he  chose  his  station,  in  view  of  a  temple  dedicated 
to  Hercules,  the  author  of  his  race;  as  if  resolved  to  fight  in 
his  presence ;  to  make  him  witness  of  the  actions  of  hi« 
descendants,  and  to  commit  his  forces  and  his  cause  to  the 
immediate  protection  of  this  hero.  Some  ancient  oracles  were 
preserved,  which  seemed  to  point  out  the  spot  on  which  he 
now  encamped,  as  the  scene  of  some  dreadful  calamity  to 
Greece. 

His  army  was  formed  of  thirty-two  thousand  men,  warlike, 
disciplined,  and  long  inured  to  the  toils  and  dangers  of  the 
field ;  but  this  body  was  composed  of  different  nations  and 
countries,  who  had  each  their  distinct  and  separate  views  ana 
interests.  The  army  of  the  confederates  did  not  amount  to 
thirty  thousand ;  of  which,  the  greater  part  was  furnished  by 
the  Athenians  and  Thebans ;  the  rest  by  the  Corinthians  and 
PelopoDnesians.    They  were  influenced  and  animated  b)  vW 


OF  GREECE. 


237 


same  motives,  and  the  same  zeal.  All  were  equally  affected 
oy  the  event ;  and  all  equally  resolved  to  conquer  or  die  in 
defence  of  liberty. 

On  the  eve  of  the  decisive  day,  Diogenes,  the  famous  cynic, 
who  had  long  looked  with  equal  contempt  on  both  parties, 
was  led,  by  curiosity,  to  visit  the  camps,  as  an  unconcerned 
spectator.  In  the  Macedonian  camp,  where  his  character  and 
person  were  not  known,  he  was  stopped  by  the  guards,  and 
conducted  to  Philip's  tent.  The  king  expressed  surprise  at 
a  stranger's  presuming  to  approach  his  camp;  and  asked, 
with  severity,  whether  he  came  as  a  spy  ?  "  Yes,"  said  Dio- 
genes, "  I  am  come  as  a  spy  upon  your  vanity  and  ambition, 
who  thus  wantonly  set  your  life  and  kingdom  to  the  hazard 
of  an  hour." 

And  now,  the  fatal  morning  appeared,  which  was  for  ever 
to  decide  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  the  empire  of  Greece.  Be- 
fore the  rising  of  the  sun,  both  armies  were  ranged  in  order 
of  battle.  The  Thebans,  commanded  by  Theogenes,  a  man  of 
but  moderate  abiliues  in  war,  and  suspected  of  corruption, 
obtained  the  post  of  honour  on  the  right  wing  of  the  confede- 
rated Greeks,  with  that  famous  body  in  the  front,  called  the 
Sacred  Band,  formed  of  generous  and  warlike  youths,  con- 
nected and  endeared  to  each  other  by  all  the  noble  enthusnasm 
of  love  and  friendship.  The  centre  was  formed  of  the  Co- 
rinthians and  Peloponnesians ;  and  the  Athenians  composed 
the  left  wing,  led  by  their  generals,  Lysicles  and  Chares. 

On  the  left  of  the  Macedonian  army,  stood  Alexander,  at 
the  head  of  a  chosen  body  of  noble  Macedonians,  supported 
by  the  famous  cavalry  of  Thessaly.    As  this  prince  was  then 
but  nineteen  years  old,  his  father  was  careful  to  curb  his 
youthful  impetuosity,  and  to  direct  his  valour;  and,  for  this 
ourpose,  surrounded  him  with  a  number  of  experienced  offi- 
cers. In  the  centre,  were  placed  those  Greeks  who  had  united 
with  Philip,  and  on  whose  courage  he  had  the  least  depend- 
ence; while  the  king  himself  commanded  on  the  right  wing 
where  his  renowned  phalanx  stood,  to  oppose  the  impetuosity 
with  which  the  Athenians  were  well  known  to  begin  theii 
onset. 

The  charge  began,  on  each  side,  with  all  the  courage  and 
violence,  which  ambilion,  revenge,  the  love  of  glory,  and  the 
love  of  liberty,  could  excite,  in  the  several  combatants.  Alex- 
ander, at  the  head  of  the  Macedonian  nobles,  first  fell,  with 
all  the  fury  oi  youthful  courage,  on  the  Sacred  Band  of 
Thebes ;  which  sustained  his  attack  with  a  bravery  and  vigour 
worthy  of  its  former  fame. 

The  gallant  youths  who  composed  this  body,  not  being 


'. 


238 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


239 


A 


^f 


timely,  or  not  duly  supported,  by  their  countrymen,  bore  up, 
for  a  while,  against  the  torrent  of  the  enemy;  till  at  length, 
oppressed  and  overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  without 
yielding  or  turnmg  their  backs  on  their  assailants,  they  sunk 
down,  on  that  ground  where  they  had  been  originally  sta- 
tioned, each  by  the  side  of  his  darling  friend,  raising  up  a 
bulwark,  by  their  bodies,  against  the  progress  of  the  army. 
But  the  young  prince  and  his  forces,  in  all  the  enthusiastic 
ardour  of  valour,  animated  by  success,  pushed  on  through  all 
the  carnage,  and  over  all  the  heaps  of  slain,  and  fell  furiously 
on  the  main  body  of  the  Thebans,  where  they  were  opposed 
with  obstinate  and  deliberate  courage,  and  the  contest  was 
for  some  time  supported  with  mutual  violence. 

The  Athenians,  at  the  same  time,  on  the  right  wing,  fought 
with  a  spirit  and  intrepidity  worthy  of  the  character  by  which 
they  were  animated.  Many  brave  efforts  were  exerted  on  each 
side,  and  success  was  for  some  time  doubtful ;  till,  at  length, 
part  of  the  centre,  and  the  left  wing  of  the  Macedonians,  (ex- 
cept the  phalanx,)  yielded  to  the  impetuous  attack  of  the 
Athenians,  and  fled,  with  some  precipitation.  Happy,  had  it 
been,  on  that  day,  for  Greece,  if  the  conduct  and  abilities  of 
the  Athenian  generals  had  been  equal  to  the  valour  of  their 
soldiers  I  But  those  brave  champions  of  liberty  were  led  od 
by  the  despicable  creatures  of  intrigue  and  cabal. 

Transported  by  the  advantage  now  obtained,  the  presump- 
tuous Ly sides  cried  out,  "  Come  on,  my  gallant  countrymen , 
the  victory  is  ours;  let  us  pursue  these  cowards,  and  drive 
them  to  Macedon ;"  and  thus,  instead  of  improving  their 
happy  opportunity,  by  charging  the  phalanx  in  flank,  and  so 
breaking  this  formidable  body,  the  Athenians  wildly  and 
precipitately  pressed  forward,  in  pursuit  of  the  flying  enemy . 
themselves  in  all  the  tumult  and  disorder  of  a  rout.  Philip 
saw  this  fatal  error,  with  the  contempt  of  a  skilful  general, 
and  the  secret  exultation  arising  from  the  assurance  of  ap- 
proaching victory. 

He  coolly  observed,  to  those  officers  that  stood  around  him, 
«  That  the  Athenians  knew  not  how  to  conquer ;"  and  ordered 
his  phalanx  to  change  its  position,  and,  by  a  sudden  evolution, 
to  gain  possession  of  an  adjacent  eminence.  From  thence, 
they  marched  deliberately  down,  firm  and  collected,  and  fell, 
with  their  united  force,  on  the  Athenians,  now  confident  ot 
success,  and  blind  to  their  danger. 

The  shock  was  irresistible :  they  were  at  once  overwhelm- 
ed ;  many  of  them  lay  crushed  by  the  weight  of  the  enemy, 
and  expiring  by  their  wounds;  while  the  rest  escaped  from 
the  dreadful  slaughter,  by  a  shameful  and  precipitate  flight; 


bearing  down,  and  hurrying  away  with  them,  those  troops 
which  had  been  stationed  for  their  support;  and  here,  the 
renowned  orator  and  stat»^sman,  whose  noble  sentiments  and 
spirited  harangues  had  raised  the  courage  on  this  day  so 
eminently  exerted,  betrayed  that  weakness,  which  has  sullied 
his  great  character.  He  alone,  of  all  his  countrymen,  advanced 
to  the  charge,  cold  and  dismayed ;  and,  at  the  very  first  ap- 
pearance of  a  reverse  of  fortune,  in  an  agony  of  terror,  turned 
his  back,  cast  away  that  shield  which  he  had  adorned  with 
this  inscription,  in  golden  characters — To  Good  Fortune  ;  and 
appeared  the  foremost  in  the  general  rout.  The  ridicule  and 
malice  of  his  enemies,  related,  or  perhaps  invented  another 
shameful  circumstance;  that,  being  impeded  in  his  flight  by 
some  brambles,  his  imagination  was  so  possessed  with  the 
presence  of  an  enemy,  that  he  loudly  cried  out  for  quarter. 

While  Philip  was  thus  triumphant  on  his  side,  Alexander 
continued  the  conflict  on  the  other  wing ;  and  at  length  broke 
the  Thebans,  in  spite  of  all  their  acts  of  valour,  who  now  fled 
from  the  field,  and  were  pursued,  with  great  carnage.  The 
centre  of  the  confederates,  was  thus  totally  abandoned  to  the 
fury  of  a  victorious  enemy.  But,  enough  of  slaughter  had 
been  already  made;  more  than  one  thousand  of  the  Athenians 
lay  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  two  thousand  were  made  pris- 
oners, and  the  loss  of  the  Thebans  was  not  inferior. 

Philip  therefore  determined  to  conclude  his  important  vic-^ 
tory,  by  an  act  of  apparent  clemency,  but  really  dictated  by 
policy  and  ambition.  He  gave  orders,  that  the  Greeks  should 
be  spared  ;  conscious  o(  his  own  designs,  and  still  expecting 
to  appear  in  the  field  the  head  and  leader  of  that  body  which 
he  had  now  completely  subdued- 
Philip  was  transported  with  this  victory,  beyond  measure, 
and  having  drunk  to  excess,  at  an  entertainment  which  he 
gave  upon  that  occasion,  went  into  the  field  of  battle,  where 
he  offered  insult  to  the  slain,  and  upbraided  the  prisoners  with 
their  misfortunes-  He  leaped  and  danced  about,  in  a  frantic 
manner,  and,  with  an  air  of  burlesque  merriment,  sung  the 
beginning  of  the  decree,  which  Demosthenes  had  drawn  up 
as  a  declaration  of  war  against  him. 

Demades,  who  was  one  of  the  prisoners,  had  the  courage 
to  reproach  him  with  this  ungenerous  behaviour;  telling  him, 
"  That  fortune  had  given  him  the  part  of  Agamemnon,  but 
that  he  was  acting  that  of  Thersites."  He  was  so  struck  with 
the  justness  of  this  reproof,  that  it  wrought  in  him  a  thorough 
change ;  and  he  was  so  far  from  being  ofiended  at  Demades 
that  he  immediately  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  showed  hiio 
afterwards  great  marks  of  honour  and  friendship. 

X 


«'JC 


iiifi  iiiaiUJKi 


He  likewise  released  all  the  Athenian  captives,  without 
ransom ;  and,  when  they  found  him  so  generously  disposed 
towards  them,  they  made  a  demai:d  of  their  bajjgage,  with 
every  thing  else  that  had  been  taken  from  them ;  but,  to  that 
Philip  replied,  "  Surely,  they  think  I  have  not  beaten  them." 
This  discharge  of  the  prisoners,  was  ascribed,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, to  Demades ;  who  is  said  to  have  new-modelled  Philip, 
and  to  have  softened  his  temper  with  the  Attic  graces,  as 
Diodorus  expresses  it :  indeed,  Philip  himself  acknowledged, 
upon  another  occasion,  that  his  frequent  conversation  with 
the  Athenian  orators,  had  been  of  great  use  to  him,  in  cor- 
recting his  morals. 

Justin  represents  his  deportment  after  the  battle,  in  a  very 
different  light ;  alleging,  that  he  took  great  pains  to  dissem- 
ble his  joy :  that  he  affected  great  modesty  and  compassion, 
and  WHS  not  seen  to  laugh ;  and  that  he  would  have  no  sacri- 
fice, no  crowns  nor  perfumes;  that  he  forbade  all  kinds  of 
sports ;  and  did  nothing  that  might  make  him  appear  to  the 
conquerors  to  be  elated,  nor  to  the  conquered  to  be  insolent. 
But  this  account  seems  to  have  been  confounded  with  others 
given  of  him,  after  his  reformation  by  Demades.  It  is  cer- 
tain, that,  after  his  first  tratisport  was  over,  and  that  he  began 
to  recollect  himself,  he  showed  great  humanity  to  the  Athe- 
nians ;  and,  that,  in  order  still  to  keep  measures  with  them, 
he  renewed  the  peace. 

But  the  Thebans,  who  had  renounced  their  alliance  with 
him,  he  treated  in  another  manner.  He,  who  affected  to  be 
as  much  master  of  his  allies,  as  of  his  subjects,  could  not 
easily  pardon  those  who  had  deserted  him  in  so  critical  a 
conjuncture.  Wherefore,  he  not  only  took  ransom  for  their 
prisoners,  but  made  them  pay  for  leave  to  bury  their  dead. 
After  these  severities,  and  after  having  placed  a  strong  gar- 
rison over  them,  he  granted  them  a  peace. 

W  e  are  told,  that  Isocrates,  the  most  celebrated  rhetorician 
of  that  age,  who  loved  his  country  with  the  utmost  tender- 
ness, could  not  survive  the  loss  and  ignominy  with  which  it 
was  covered,  by  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Chaeronea.  The  in- 
stani  he  received  the  news  of  its  being  uncertain  what  use 
Philip  would  make  of  his  \ictory,  determined  to  die  a  free 
man,  he  hastened  his  end,  by  abstaining  from  food ;  being 
ninety-eight  years  of  age. 

This  defeat  was  attributed  chiefly  to  the  ill  conduct  of  the 
generals  Lysicles  and  Chares  ;  the  former  of  whom  the  Athe- 
nians put  to  death,  at  the  instance  of  Lycurgus,  who  bad  great 
credit  art*  influence  with  the  people,  but  was  a  severe  judg«, 
ana  a  most  bitter  accuser.     "  You,  Lysicles,"  said  he,  "  were 


OF  GREECE. 


241 


general  of  the  army ;  a  thousand  citizens  were  slain,  two 
thousand  taken  prisoners ;  a  trophy  has  been  erected  to  the 
dishonour  of  this  city,  and  all  Greece  is  enslaved.  You  had 
the  command,  when  all  these  things  happened ;  and  yet  you 
dare  to  live,  and  view  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  blush  not  to 
appear  publicly  in  the  forum ;  you,  Lysicles,  who  arc  born 
the  monument  of  your  country's  shame !" 

This  Lycurgus  was  an  orator  of  the  first  rank,  and  free 
from  the  general  corruption  which  then  reigned  among  thc^ii. 
He  managed  the  public  treasures,  for  twelve  years,  with  great 
uprightness,  and  had,  all  his  life,  the  reputation  of  a  man  of 
honour  and  virtue.  He  increased  the  shipping,  supplied  the 
arsenal,  drove  the  bad  men  out  of  the  city,  and  framed  seve- 
ral good  laws.  He  kept  an  exact  register  of  every  thing  he 
did  during  his  administration ;  and  when  that  was  expired, 
he  caused  it  to  be  fixed  to  a  pillar,  that  every  body  might  be 
at  liberty  to  inspect  it,  and  to  censure  his  conduct.  He  car- 
ried this  point  so  far,  that,  in  his  last  sickness,  he  ordered 
himself  to  be  carried  to  the  senate-house,  to  give  a  public  ac- 
count of  all  his  actions;  and,  after  he  had  refuted  one  who 
accused  him  there,  he  went  home  and  died. 

Notwithstanding  the  austerity  of  his  temper,  he  was  a 
great  encourager  of  the  stage ;  which,  though  it  had  been 
carried  to  an  excess  manifestly  hurtful  to  the  public,  he  still 
looked  upon  it  as  the  best  school  to  instruct  and  polish  the 
minds  of  the  people.  To  this  end,  he  kept  up  a  spirit  of 
emulation  among  the  writers  of  tragedy,  and  erected  the 
statues  of  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  He  left  three 
sons,  who  were  unworthy  of  him,  and  behaved  so  ill,  that 
they  were  all  put  in  prison ;  but  Demosthenes,  out  of  regard 
to  the  memory  of  their  father,  got  them  discharged. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Chares  underwent  any  prosecution, 
for  his  share  of  this  action ;  though,  according  to  the  general 
character,  he  deserved  it  as  much,  or  more,  than  his  colleague. 
He  had  no  talent  for  command,  and  was  very  little  diff*erent 
from  a  common  soldier.  Timotheus  said  to  him,  •*  That,  in- 
stead of  being  a  general,  he  was  fitter  to  carry  the  general's 
baggage."  His  person,  indeed,  was  of  that  robust  kind  of 
make:  and  it  was  that  which  served,  in  some  measure,  to 
reconftnend  him  to  the  people.  But  he  was  more  a  man  of. 
pleasure,  than  fatigue. 

In  his  military  expeditions,  he  usually  carried  with  him  a 
band  of  music ;  and  defrayed  the  expense  out  of  the  soldiers' 
pay.  Notwithstanding  his  want  of  abilities,  he  had  a  high 
opinion  of  him.self.  He  was  vain  and  positive,  bold  and 
boisterous,  a  great  undertaker,  and  always  ready  to  warrant 


I 
t  ■ 


m 


OF  GREECE. 


243 


843 


THE  HISTORY 


success ;  but  his  performances  seldom  answered ;  and  hence 
It  was,  that  the  promises  of  Chares  became  a  proverb.    Yet, 
as  little  a-s  he  was  to  be  depended  on,  he  had  his  partisans 
among  the  people,  and  among  the  orators ;  by  whose  means 
he  got  himself  frequently  employed,  and  others  excluded 
who  were  more  capable. 

But  it  was  Demosthenes  who  seemed  to  have  been  the  prin 
cipal  cause  of  the  terrible  shock  which  Athens  received  at 
this  time,  and  which  gave  its  power  such  a  wound,  as  it  never 
recovered.  However,  at  the  very  instant  the  Athenians  heard 
of  this  bloody  overthrow,  which  affected  so  great  a  number 
of  families,  when  it  would  have  been  no  wonder,  had  the  mul- 
titude, seized  with  terror  and  alarms,  given  way  to  an  emo- 
tion of  blind  zeal,  against  the  man  whom  they  might  have 
considered,  in  some  measure,  as  the  author  of  this  dreadful 
calamity ;  even,  at  this  very  instant,  the  people  submitted  en 
urely  to  the  counsels  of  Demosthenes. 

The  precautions  taken  to  post  guards,  to  raise  the -walls 
^nd  to  repair  the  ditches,  were  all  inconsequence  of  his  ad- 
vice. He  himself  was  appointed  to  supply  the  city  with  pro- 
visiofi,  and  to  repair  the  walls  ;  which  latter  commission  he 
executed  with  so  much  generosity,  that  it  acquired  hini 
the  greatest  honour ;  and  for  which,  at  the  request  of  Ctesi- 
ijiion,  a  crown  of  gold  was  decreed  him,  as  a  reward  for  his 
having  presented  the  commonwealth  with  a  sum  of  money, 
out  of  his  own  estate,  sufficient  to  supply  what  was  wanting 
of  the  sums  for  repairing  the  walls. 

On  the  present  occasion,  that  is,  after  the  battle  of  Chaero- 
nea,  such  orators  as  opposed  Demosthenes,  having  all  risen 
up  in  concert  against  him,  and  having  cited  him  to  take  his 
trial  according  to  law,  the  people  not  only  declared  him  in- 
nocent of  the  several  accusations  laid  to  his  charge,  but  con- 
f*irred  more  honours  upon  him,  than  he  had  enjoyed  before ; 
•so  strong  did  their  veneration  for  his  zeal  and  fidelity,  over- 
balance the  efforts  of  calumny  and  malice. 

But  the  people  did  not  stop  here.  The  bones  of  such  af 
had  been  killed  in  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  having  been  brought 
to  Athens,  to  be  interred,  they  appointed  Demosthenes  to 
compose  the  eulogium  of  those  brave  men :  a  manifest  proof 
that  they  did  not  ascribe  to  him  the  ill  success  of  the  bat- 
tle, but  to  Providence  only,  who  disposes  of  human  events  at 
pleasure. 

It  was  in  this  year,  that  -£schines  drew  up  an  accusation 
against  Ctesiphon,  or  rather  against  Demosthenes  ;  which  was 
the  most  remarkable  that  ever  ap»>3J*red  before  any  tribunal , 
not  so  much  for  the  object  of  ihe  c^uiest,  as  for  the  g.^en*. 


ness  and  ability  of  the  speakers.  Ctesiphon,  a  partisan  and 
friend  of  Demosthenes,  brought  a  cause  before  the  assembly 
ot  the  people,  in  which  he  urged  that  a  decree  should  be 
passed,  giving  a  gold  crown  to  Demosthenes.  This  decree 
was  strongly  opposed  by  .Eschines,  the  rival  of  Demosthenes 
as  well  m  eloquence  as  ambition.  No  cause  ever  excited  so 
much  curiosity,  nor  was  pleaded  with  so  much  pomp.  Peo- 
ple flocked  to  it  fpom  all  parts ;  and  they  had  great  reason  for 
so  doing.  What  sight  could  be  nobler,  than  a  conflict  be- 
tween  two  orators,  each  excellent  in  his  way;  both  formed 
by  nature,  improved  by  art,  and  animated  by  perpetual  dis- 
seii^ions,  and  an  implacable  animosity  against  each  other  ? 

I  he  juncture  seemed  very  much  to  favour  iEschines;  for 
the  Macedonian  party,  whom  he  always  befriended,  was  very 
powerful  m  Athens,  especially  after  the  ruin  of  Thebes 
Nevertheless,  ^schines  lost  his  cause,  and  was  justly  sen- 
tenced to  banishment,  for  his  rash  accusation.  He  there- 
upon went  and  settled  himself  in  Rhodes ;  where  he  open- 
ed  a  school  of  eloquence,  the  fame  and  glory  of  which  con- 
tinned  tor  many  ages. 

He  began  his  lectures  with  the  two  orations  which  had  oc- 
casioned his  banishment.  Great  encomiums  were  given  to 
that  of  JEschmes ;  but  when  they  heard  that  of  Demosthenes 
the  plaudits  and  acclamations  were  redoubled.  It  was  then' 
that  h^  spoke  these  words,  so  greatly  laudable  in  the  mouth 
of  an  enemy  and  a  rival .— «  Alas  !  what  applauses  would  you 
hi'msdf "     ^^^'''^''^'  ^^"^  y*'"'  ^'^^^^  Demosthenes  speak  it 

Demosthenes,  thus  become  victor,  made  a  good  use  of  his 
conquest  The  instant  iEschines  left  Athens,  in  order  to  em- 
bark  for  Rhodes,  Demosthenes  ran  after  him,  and  forced  him 
to  accept  of  a  purse  of  money.  On  this  occasion,  .Eschines 
cried  out, «  How  will  it  be  possible  for  me  not  to  regret  a 
country,  m  which  I  leave  an  enemy,  more  generous,  than  1 
can  hope  to  find  friends,  in  any  part  of  the  world  " 

In  the  mean  time,  Philip  had  his  ambition  gratified,  but 
not  satisfied  by  his  last  victory :  he  had  only  one  object  Ion? 
m  view,  and  of  that  he  never  lost  sight:  the  present  was,  to 
get  himsell  appomted  in  the  assembly  of  the  Greeks,  their 
chief  general,  against  the  Persians.  It  h^  long  been  the 
object,  not  only  of  the  confederate  states,  but  also  of  the 
neighbouring  Greek  nations,  to  revenge,  upon  the  kingdom 
ot  Fersia,  the  injuries  sustained  from  it ;  and  to  work  the 
total  destruction  of  that  empire.  This  was  an  object,  which 
had  early  inflamed  the  mind  of  Philip,  and,  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  which  his  late  victory  paved  the  way.     He 


244 


THL  lIlSTOKlf 


OF  GREECE. 


245 


therefore  got  himself  declared  generaligsim  >. .m*  iLe  ^'iierk  forccf, 
and  made  preparations  to  invade  that  mighty  empire. 

But,  whilst  Philip  was  thus  successful  in  politics  and  war,  the 
domestic  divisions  that  reigned  in  his  family,  embittered  his  hap- 
piness, and  at  last  caused  his  destruction.  He  had  married  Olym* 
pias,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus,  and  the  early  part  of 
their  union  was  crowned  with  happiness ;  but  her  ill  temper 
soon  clouded  that  dawn,  which  promised  so  much  felicity  :  she 
was  naturally  jealous,  vindictive,  and  piissionate,  and  their  dis- 
sensions were  carried  to  such  a  degree,  that  Philip  was  ofleo 
heard  to  wish  for  death. 

But  his  passion  for  Cleopatra,  niece  to  Attains,  his  general, 
completed  their  separation.  As  Cleopatra  was  no  less  amiable 
in  her  temper  and  accomplishments,  than  in  the  extraordinary 
graces  of  her  person,  Philip  conceived  that  he  should  consult 
his  own  happiness  most  efTectually,  by  forming  an  inviolable  and 
perpetual  union  with  this  lady  ;  and,  without  the  least  hesitation, 
resolved  to  separate  himself,  for  ever,  from  the  princess  who 
had  long  appeared  so  great  an  enemy  to  his  tranquillity. 

In  vain,  did  Alexander,  his  son,  remonstrate  th.at,  by  divorcing 
Olympias,  and  engaging  inii  second  marriage,  he  exposed  him 
to  the  danger  of  contending  with  a  number  of  competitors  for  the 
crown,  and  rendered  his  succession  precarious.  "  My  son,"  said 
the  king,  **  if  1  create  you  a  number  of  competitors,  you  will  have 
thetclorious  opportunity  of  exerting  yourself  to  surpass  them  in 
merit.  Thus,  shall  their  rivalship  by  no  means  aflcct  your  title." 

His  marriage  with  Cleopatra  was  now  declared  in  form,  and 
celebrated  with  all  the  grandeur  and  solemnity  which  the  great 
occasion  demanded. 

The  voung  prince,  however  dissatisfied,  was  yet  obliged  to 
attend  on  these  solemnities  ;  and  sat,  in  silent  indignation,  at  that 
feKst  which  proclaimed  the  disgrace  of  his  mother.  In  such  cir- 
cumstances, liis  youthful  and  impetuous  mind  coold  not  but  be 
susceptible  of  the  slightest  irritation.  Attains,  the  uncle  of  the 
new  queen,  forgetting  that  just  caution  which  should  have  taught 
him  to  be  scrupulously  observant  to  avoid  offending  the  prince, 
intoxicated  by  the  honours  paid  to  his  kinswoman,  as  well  as  by 
the  present  festivity,  was  rash  enough  to  call  publicly  on  the  Ma 
cedonian  nobles,  to  pour  out  their  libations  to  the  gods,  that  they 
might  grant  the  king  the  happy  fruits  of  the  present  nuptials,  and 
legitimate  heirs  to  his  throne. 

^V retch  I  cried  Alexander,  with  his  eyes  sparkling  with  that 
fury  and  vexation  which  he  had  till  now  suppressed,  dost  thoa 
tlien  call  me  bastard  ?  and  instantly  darted  his  goblet  at  Attains, 
who  returned  the  outrage  with  double  violence.  Clamour  and 
confusion  arose,  and  the  king,  in  a  sudden  fit  of  ra^p,  snatched 


his  sword,  and  flew  directly  towards  his  son  His  piecipitation, 
his  lameness,  and  the  quantity  of  wine  in  which  he  had,  by  this 
time,  indulged,  happily  tlisappointed  his  rash  purpose  ;  he  stum- 
bled, and  fell  on  the  floor,  while  Alexander,  with  an  unpardonable 
insolence,  cried  out,  "  Behold,  ye  Macedonians  !  this  is  the  king 
who  is  preparing  to  lead  you  into  Asia :  see,  where,  in  passing 
from  one  table  to  another,  he  is  fallen  to  the  ground." 

Philip,  however,  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  conquest  of  Asia 
Full  of  the  mighty  project  he  revolved,  he  consulted  the  gods, 
to  know  what  would  be  the  event ;  and  the  priestess  replied,* 
The  victim  is  already  crowned,  his  end  draws  nigh,  and  he  will  soon 
be  sacrijiced,  Philip,  hearing  this,  did  not  hesitate  a  moment,  bui 
interpreted  the  oracle  in  his  own  favouf  ;  the  ambiguity  of  which 
ought,  at  least,  to  have  kept  him  in  some  suspense.  In  order, 
therefore,  that  he  might  be  in  a  condition  to  apply  entirely  to  his 
expedition  against  the  Persians,  and  elevate  himself  solely  to  the 
conquest  of  Asia,  he  despatched,  with  all  possible  diligence,  his 
domestic  aff'airs. 

After  this,  he  offered  up  a  solemn  sacrifice  to  the  gods  ;  and 
prepared  to  celebrate,  with  incredible  magnificence,  in  Egae,  a 
city  of  Macedonia,  the  nuptials  of  Cleopatra,  his  daughter,  whom 
he  gave  in  marriage  to  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  and  brother  to 
Olympias,  his  queen.  He  had  invited  to  it  the  most  considerable 
persons  of  Greece,  and  heaped  upon  them  friendship  and  honours 
of  every  kind,  by  way  of  gratitude  for  electing  him  generalissimo 
of  the  Greeks. 

The  cities  made  their  court  to  him,  in  emulation  of  each  other 
by  sending  him  gold  crowns  ;  and  Athens  distinguished  its  zeal 
above  all  the  rest.  Neoptolemus,  the  poet,  had  written  purposely 
for  that  festival,  a  tragedy,  entitled  Cinyras  ;  in  which,  under  bor- 
rowed names,  he  represented  his  prince  as  already  victor  over 
Darius,  and  master  of  Asia.  Philip  listened  to  these  happy  pre- 
sages, with  joy  ;  and,  comparing  them  with  the  answer  of  the 
oracle,  assured  himself  of  conquest. 

The  day  after  the  nuptials,  games  and  shows  were  solemnised. 
As  these  formed  part  of  the  religious  worship,  there  were  carried 
in  it,  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  twelve  statues  of  the  gods, 
carved  with  inimitable  art :  a  thirteenth,  which  surpassed  them 
all  in  magnificence,  represented  Philip  as  a  god.  The  hour  of  his 
leaving  the  palace  arrived  ;  he  went  forth,  in  a  white  robe  ;  and 
advanced,  with  an  air  of  majesty,  in  the  midst  of  acclamations, 
towards  the  theatre,  where  an  infinite  multitude  of  Macedonians, 
as  well  as  foreigners,  waited  his  arrival,  with  impatience. 

But  this  magnificence  served  only  to  make  the  catastropne 
more  remarkable,  and  to  add  splendour  to  ruin.  Some  time  be  • 
fore,  Attalus,  inflamed  with  wine  at  an  entertainment,  had  insulted. 


246 


THE  HISTORY 


in  the  most  shocking  manner,  Pausanias,  a  young  MacedoniaD  no- 
bleman. The  latter  had  long  endeavoured  to  revenge  the  cruel  af 
front,  and  was  perpetually  imploring  the  king^s  justice.  But  Phil 
ip,  unwilling  to  disgust  Attalus,  uncle  to  Cleopatra,  whom,  as  was 
biifore  observed,  he  had  married  after  his  divorcing  Olympias,  his 
first  queen,  would  never  listen  to  the  complaints  of  Pausanias 
However,  to  console  him,  in  some  measure,  and  to  express  his  high 
esteem  for  him,  and  the  great  confidence  he  reposed  in  him,  he 
made  him  one  of  the  chief  officers  of  his  life  guard.  But  this  was 
not  what  the  young  Macedonian  required ;  whose  anger  now  swell- 
ing to  fury  against  his  judge,  he  formed  the  design  of  wiping  out 
his  shame,  by  imbruing  his  hands  in  the  blood  of  his  sovereign. 

While  this  unhappy  youth  continued  brooding  over  those  ma- 
lignant passions  which  distracted  and  corroded  his  mind,  he  hap- 
pened to  go  into  the  school  of  one  Hermocrates,  who  professed  to 
teach  philosophy  ;  to  whom,  he  proposed  the  following  question  • 
**  What  shall  that  man  do,  who  wishes  to  transmit  his  name  with 
lustre  to  posterity  ?"  Hermocrates,  either  artfully  and  from  de- 
sign, ur  the  natural  malignity  of  his  temper,  replied,  "  He  must 
kill  him  who  has  achieved  the  greatest  actions  :  thus,  shall  the 
memory  of  the  hero  be  joined  with  his  who  slew  him,  and  both 
descend  together  to  posterity." 

This  was  a  maxim  highly  agreeable  to  Pausanias,  in  the  present 
disposition  of  his  mind  ;  and  thus,  various  accidents  and  circum- 
stances concurred,  to  inflame  those  dangerous  passions  which 
now  possessed  him,  and  to  prompt  him  to  the  dreadful  purpose  of 
satiating  his  revenge.  The  present  solemnity  was  that  which 
Pausanias  chose,  to  put  his  dreadful  design  into  execution.  Philip, 
clothed  in  a  white  flowing  robe,  waving  in  soft  and  graceful  folds, 
the  habiliments  in  which  the  Grecian  deities  were  usually  repre- 
sented, moved  forward,  with  a  heart  filled  with  triumph  and  ex- 
ultation, while  the  admiring  crowds  shouted  forth  their  flattering 
applause. 

His  guards  had  orders  to  keep  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
his  person,  to  show  that  the  king  confided  in  the  affections  of  the 
people,  and  had  not  the  least  apprehensions  of  danger,  amidst  all 
this  mixed  concourse  of  diff*erent  states  and  nations.  Unhappily, 
the  danger  was  too  near  him.  The  injured  Pausanias  had  not  yet 
forgot  his  wrongs,  but  still  retained  those  terrible  impressions, 
which  the  sense  of  the  indignity  he  had  received,  and  the  artful 
and  interested  representations  of  others,  fixed  deeply  in  his  mind. 
He  chose  this  fatal  morning  for  the  execution  of  his  revenge,  on 
the  prince  who  had  denied  reparation  to  his  injured  honour. 

His  design  had  been,  for  some  time,  premeditated,  and  now  waa 
the  dreadful  moment  of  effecting  it.  As  Philip  marched  on,  in  all 
his  pride  und  pomp,  this  young  Macedonian  slipped  through  the 


OF  GREECE. 


247 


crowd,  and  with  a  desperate  and  malignant  resolution,  waited  his 
approach,  in  a  narrow  passage,  just  at  the  entrance  into  the  thea- 
tre. The  king  advanced  towards  him,  Pausanias  drew  his  pon- 
iard, plunged  it  into  his  heart,  and  the  conqueror  of  Greece,  and 
terror  of  Asia,  fell  prostrate  to  the  ground,  and  instantly  expired. 

The  murderer  flew  towards  the  gates  of  the  city,  where  there 
stood  horses  ready  to  favour  his  escape,  which  Olympias  herself 
IS  said  to  have  prepared.  The  tumult  and  confusion  was  such  as 
might  be  expected  from  so  fatal  an  event :  some  of  the  Macedo- 
nians crowded  round  the  fallen  king,  with  ofticious  and  ineff*ectual 
care,  while  others  pursued  Pausanias.  Among  these,  were  Per- 
diccas,  Attalus,  and  Leonatus.  The  first,  who  excelled  in  swiftness 
came  up  to  the  assassin,  where  he  was  just  preparing  to  mount  his 
horse  ;  but  being,  by  his  precipitation,  entangled  in  some  vines,  a 
violent  effort  to  extricate  the  foot  brought  him  suddenly  to  the 
ground.  As  he  prepared  to  rise,  Perdiccas  was  upon  him,  and, 
with  his  companions,  soon  despatched  him,  by  the  repeated 
wounds  which  their  fury  inflicted.  His  body  was  immediately 
hung  on  a  gibbet ;  but,  in  the  morning,  it  appeared  crowned  with  a 
golden  diadem  ;  the  only  means  by  which  Olympias  could  now  ex- 
press her  implacable  resentment.  In  a  few  days,  indeed,  she  took 
a  further  occasion  of  publishing  her  triumph  and  exultation  in  her 
husband's  fall,  by  paying  the  same  funeral  honours  to  Pausanias, 
which  were  prepared  for  Philip  ;  both  bodies  were  burnt  on  the 
same  pile,  and  the  ashes  of  both  deposited  in  the  same  tomb. 

She  is  even  said  to  have  prevailed  on  the  Macedonians  to  pay 
annual  honours  to  Pausanias  ;  as  if  she  feared  that  the  share  she 
had  taken  in  the  death  of  Philip,  should  not  be  sufficiently  known 
to  the  world.  She  consecrated  to  Apollo  the  dagger  which  had 
been  the  instrument  of  the  fatal  deed,  inscribed  with  the  name 
Myrtalis  ;  the  name  she  had  borne  when  their  loves  first  began. 

Thus,  died  Philip,  whose  virtues  and  vices  were  directed  and 
proportioned  to  his  ambition.  His  most  shining  and  exalted  quali- 
ties, were  influenced,  in  a  great  measure,  by  his  love  of  power ; 
and  even  the  most  exceptionable  parts  of  his  conduct,  were  prin- 
cipally determined  by  their  conveniency  and  expedience.  If  he 
WAS  unjust,  he  was,  like  Caesar,  unjust  for  the  sake  of  empire.  If 
he  gloried  in  the  success  acquired  by  his  virtues  and  his  intel- 
lectual accomplishments,  rather  than  in  that  gained  by  the  force 
of  arms,  the  reason  which  he  himself  assigned,  points  out  his  true 
principle — "  In  the  former  case,"  said  he,  **  the  glory  is  entirely 
mine  ;  in  the  other,  my  generals  and  soldiers  have  their  share." 
The  news  of  Philip's  death  was  a  joyful  surprise  in  Greece, 
and  particularly  in  Athens  ;  where  the  people  crowned  them- 
selves with  garlands^and  decreed  a  crown  to  Pausanias.  They 
iacrificed  to  the  gods,  for  their  delirerance,  and  sung  songs  of  tri- 


1248 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GRilECE. 


umph,  as  if  Philip  had  been  slain  by  them  in  battle.  But  this  ex 
cess  of  joy  did  ill  become  them.     It  was  looked  upon  as  an 
ungenerous  and  unmanly  insult  upon  the  ashes  of  a  niurdered 
prince,  and  of  one  whom  they  had  just  before  revered  and 
crouched  to,  in  the  most  abject  manner. 

These  immoderate  transports  were  raised  in  them  by  Demos- 
henes  ;  who,  having  the  first  intelligence  of  PhiJip*s  death,  went 
into  the  assembly  unusually  gay  and  cheerful,  with  a  chaplet  on 
his  head,  and  in  a  rich  habit,  though  it  was  then  but  the  seventh 
day  after  the  death  of  his  daughter.  From  this  circumstance, 
Plutarch,  at  the  same  time  that  he  condemns  the  behaviour  of 
the  Athenians  in  general  upon  this  occasion,  takes  an  opportuni- 
ty to  justify  Demosthenes  ;  and  extols  him  as  a  patriot,  for  not 
suffering  his  domestic  aflflictions  to  interfere  with  the  good  for- 
tune of  the  commonwealth.  But  he  certainly  might  have  acted 
the  part  of  a  good  citizen  with  more  decency,  and  not  have  giv 
en  up  to  insult,  what  was  due  to  good  manners. 


249 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

From  the  Birth  of  Alexander y  to  the  death  of  Dartui, 

Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  ascended  the      .     ^    ^«  .^ 
throne  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  and  took     ^'  ^'  p  iL 
possession  of  a  kingJom  rendered  flourishing  *"*"     *  ^'  ^^^ 
and  powerful  by  the  policy  of  the  preceding  reign. 

He  came  into  the  world,  the  very  day  the  celebrated  temple 
of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  burned  ;  upon  which  occasion,  it  m 
reported,  that  Hegasius,  the  historian,  was  heard  to  say,  "  That 
It  was  no  wonder  the  temple  was  burnt,  as  Diana  was  that  day 
employed  facilitating  the  biith  of  Alexander." 

The  passion  which  prevailed  most  in  Alexander,  even  from 
his  tender  years,  was  ambition,  and  an  ardent  desire  of  glory, 
but  not  for  every  species  of  glory.  Philip,  like  a  sophist,  valued 
himself  upon  his  eloquence,  and  the  beauty  of  his  style,  and  had 
the  vanity  to  have  engraved  on  his  coins,  the  several  victories 
he  had  won  at  the  Olympic  games,  in  the  chariot  race.  But  it 
was  not  after  such  empty  honours  that  his  son  aspired.  His 
friends  asked  him  one  day,  whether  he  would  not  be  present  at 
the  games  above  mentioned,  in  order  to  dispute  the  prize  be 
•towed  on  that  occasion  ?  for  he  was  very  swift  of  foot.  He 
answered,  that  he  would  contend  in  them,  provided  kings  were 
to  be  his  antagonists. 

Every  time  news  was  brought  him  that  his  father  had  taken 
Rome  city,  or  gained  some  great  battle,  Alexander,  so  far  from 
fharing  in  the  general  joy,  used  to  say,  in  a  plaintive  tone  of  yoice, 


to  the  young  persons  that  were  brought  up  with  him,  «  Friends 
my  father  will  take  possession  of  every  thing,  and  leave  nothiuE 
for  me  to  do.'*  * 

One  day,  some  ambassadors  from  the  king  of  Persia  havmg  ar- 
rived at  court,  during  Philip's  absence,  Alexander  gave  them  so 
kmd  and  so  polite  a  reception,  and  regaled  them  in  so  noble  and 
generous  a  manner,  as  charmed  them  all ;  but,  that  which  most 
surprised  them,  was,  the  good  sense  and  judgment  he  discovered, 
in  conversation.     He  did  not  propose  to  them  any  thing  that  was 
trifling,  and  like  one  of  his  age  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  inquiring 
about  the  so  much  boasted  gardens  suspended  in  the  air ;  thte 
riches  and  magnificence  of  the  palace  and  court  of  the  king  of 
Persia,  which  excited  the  admiration  of  the  whole  world ;  the 
fanious  golden  plaintain-tree  ;  and  that  golden  vine,  the  grapes  of 
which  were  of  emeralds,  carbuncles,  rubies,  and  all  sorts  of 
precious  stones,  under  which  the  Persian  monarch  was  said  fre- 
quently to  give  audience.     Alexander  asked  them  questions  of  a 
quite  different  nature  ;  inquiring  which  was  the  road  to  Upper  * 
Asia ;  the  distance  of  the  several  places  ;  in  which,  the  strength 
and  power  of  the  king  of  Persia  consisted ;  in  what  part  of  the 
battle,  he  fought ;  how  he  behaved  towards  his  enemies,  and  in 
what  manner  he  governed  his  subjects.     These  ambassadors  ad- 
mired him  all  the  while  ;  and  perceiving,  even  at  that  time,  how 
great  he  might  one  day  become,  they  observed,  in  a  few  words, 
the  difference  they  found  between  Alexander  and  Artaxerxes,  by 
saying,  one  to  another,  «  This  young  prince  is  great,  and  ours  is 
rich  :"  that  man  must  be  vastly  insignificant,  who  has  no  othei 
merit  than  his  riches. 

So  ripe  a  judgment  in  this  young  prince,  was  owing  entirely 
to  his  good  education.  Several  preceptors  had  been  appointed, 
to  teach  him  all  such  arts  and  sciences  as  are  generally  bestowed 
on  the  heir  to  a  great  kingdom;  and  the  chief  of  these  was 
Leonidas,  a  person  of  the  most  severe  morals,  and  a  relation  of 
the  queen.  This  Leonidas,  in  their  joumies  together,  used  fre- 
quently to  look  into  the  trunks  where  his  bed  and  clothes  were 
laid,  m  order  to  see  if  Olympias,  his  mother,  had  not  put  some- 
thing superfluous  into  them,  which  might  administer  to  delicacy 
and  luxury. 

But  the  greatest  service  Philip  did  his  son,  was  appointing 
Aristotle  his  preceptor,  the  most  famous  and  the  most  learned 
philosopher  of  his  age,  whom  he  entrusted  with  the  whole  care 
of  his  education.  One  of  the  reasons  which  prompted  Philip  to 
choose  him  a  master  of  so  conspicuous  reputation  and  merit,  was, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,  that  his  son  might  avoid  committin<y  a  great 
many  faults,  of  which  he  had  himself  been  guilty.  * 

Philip  was  sensible  how  great  a  treaswe  he  possessed  in  the 


ii 


«60 


THE  HISTORY 


person  of  Aristotle  ;  for  which  reason,  he  settled  upon  him  a  very 
genteel  stipend,  and  afterwards  rewarded  his  pains  and  care,  in  an 
intiuitely  more  glorious  manner.  Having  destroyed  and  laid  waste 
the  city  of  Stagira,  the  native  place  of  that  philosopher,  he  rebuilt 
it,  purely  out  of  affection  for  him ;  reinstated  the  inhabitants  who 
had  fled  from  it,  or  were  made  slaves  ;  and  gave  them  a  fine  park 
in  the  neighbourhood,  as  a  place  for  their  studies  and  assemblies 
Even  in  Plutarch's  time,  the  stone  scats  which  Aristotle  had  placed 
there,  were  standing  ;  as  also  spacious  vistas,  under  which  those 
who  walked  were  shaded  from  the  sun  beams. 

Alexander,  likewise,  discovered  no  less  esteem  for  his  master, 
whom  he  believed  himself  bound  to  love,  as  much  as  if  he  had 
been  his  father  ;  declaring,  that  he  was  indebted  to  the  one  for 
living,  and  to  the  other  for  living  well.  The  progress  of  the  pu- 
pil  wjis  equal  to  the  care  and  abilities  of  the  preceptor.  He 
grew  extremely  fond  of  philosophy,  and  learned  the  several 
parts  of  it ;  but  in  a  manner  suitable  to  his  birth. 

Aristotle  endeavoured  to  improve  his  judgment,  by  laying  dowr 
sure  and  certain  rules,  by  which  he  might  distinguish  just  and  solid 
reasoning,  from  what  is  only  specious  ;  and,  by  accustoming  him  tc 
separate,  in  discourse,  all  such  parts  as  only  dazzle,  from  those 
which  are  truly  solid,  and  constitute  its  whole  value.  Alexander 
applied  himself  chiefly  to  morality,  which  is  properly  the  science 
of  kings,  because  it  is  the  knowledge  of  mankind,  and  of  their  du 
lies.  This  he  made  his  serious  and  profound  study ;  and  consider 
ed  it,  even  at  that  time,  as  the  foundation  of  prudence  and  wise 
policy. 

The  greatest  master  of  rhetoric,  that  antiquity  could  ever 
Doast,  and  who  has  left  so  excellent  a  treatise  on  that  subject,  took 
care  to  make  that  science  part  of  his  pupil's  education  ;  and  we 
find,  that  Alexander,  even  in  the  midst  of  his  conquests,  was  often 
very  urgent  with  Aristotle  to  send  him  a  treatise  on  that  subject. 
To  this,  we  owe  the  work,  entitled  Alexander's  Rhetoric  ;  in  the 
beginning  of  which,  Aristotle  proves  to  him  the  vast  advantages 
a  prince  may  reap  from  eloquence  ;  as  it  gives  him  the  greatest 
ascendant  over  the  minds  of  men,  which  he  ought  to  acquire,  as 
well  by  his  wisdom  as  authority. 

Some  answers  and  letters  of  Alexander,  which  are  still  extant, 
show  that  he  possessed,  in  its  greatest  perfection,  that  strong,  that 
manly  eloquence,  which  abounds  with  sense  and  ideas ;  and  which 
is  so  entirely  free  from  superfluous  expressions,  that  every  single 
word  has  its  meaning ;  which,  properly  speaking,  is  the  eloquence 
of  kings.  His  esteem,  or  rather  his  passion  for  Homer,  shows,  not 
only  with  what  vigour  and  success  he  applied  to  polite  literature, 
hut  the  judicious  use  he  made  of  it,  and  the  solid  advantages  he 
proposed  to  himself  from   it.     He  was  not  prompted  to  peruso 


OF  GREECE. 


251 


this  poet,  merely  out  of  curiosity,  or  to  unbend  his  mind,  or  from 
a  great  fondness  for  poetry ;  but  his  view,  in  studying  tins  admira- 
ble writer,  was  to  borrow  such  sentiments  from  him.  as  were 
worthy  a  great  kmg  and  conqwp.ror ;  courage,  intrepidity,  mag- 
nanimity,  temperance,  prudence,  the  art  of  commanding  well,  in 
war  and  peace.  The  verse  which  pleased  him  most,  in  Homer, 
was  that  where  Agamemnon  is  represented  as  a  good  king  and 
a  brave  warrior.  &        -^^  s»  «'"" 

After  this,  it  is  no  wonder  that  Alexander  should  have  so  high 
an  esteem  for  this  poet.  Thus,  when,  after  the  battle  of  Arbela. 
the  Macedonians  found,  among  the  spoils  of  Darius,  a  gold  box 
enriched  with  precious  stones,  in  which  the  excellent  perfumes 
used  by  that  prince  were  put ;  Alexander,  who  was  quite  cover- 
ft  r.*[  u '*'  ^^"^  regardless  of  essences  and  perfumes,  ordered 
that  this  box  should  be  employed  to  no  other  use,  than  to  hold 
Homer  s  poems  ;  which  he  believed  the  most  perfect,  the  most 
precise  production,  of  the  human  mind.  He  admired  particularly 
the  ihad,  which  he  called  the  best  provision  for  a  warrior 

He  always  had  with  him  that  edition  of  Homer,  which  Aristotle 
had  revised  and  corrected,  and  to  which  the  title  of  "  The  Edition 
ot  the  Box"  was  given  ;  and  he  laid  it,  with  his  sword,  every  night 
under  his  pillow.  Fond,  even  to  excess,  of  every  kind  of  glorv. 
he  was  displeased  with  Aristotle,  his  master,  for  having  pubhshed 
in  his  absence,  certain  metaphysical  pieces,  which  he  himself  de- 
sired to  possess  alone  ;  and  even,  at  the  time  when  he  was  employ, 
ed  in  the  conquest  of  Asia,  and  the  pursuit  of  Darius,  he  wrote 
to  him  a  letter,  which  is  still  extant,  wherein  he  complains  upon 
that  very  account.  ^ 

Alexander  says  in  it,  "  That  he  had  much  rather  surpass  the 
rest  of  men  in  the  knowledge  of  sublime  and  excellent  things,  than 
m  the  greatness  and  extent  of  his  powers."  He,  in  like  manner, 
requested  Aristotle  not  to  show  the  treatise  of  rhetoric,  above 
mentioned,  to  any  person  but  himself.  He  had  also  a  taste  for 
the  whole  circle  of  arts,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  became  a  prince 
that  IS,  he  knew  their  usefulness  and  value.  Music,  paintin<r 
sculpture,  architecture,  flourished  in  his  reign  ;  because  the^ 
lound  him  both  a  skilful  judge,  and  generous  protector  ;  who  was 
able  to  distinguish  and  to  reward  merit. 

But  he  despised  certain  trifling  feats  of  dexterity,  that  were 
«oi  no  use.  Some  Macedonians  Bdmi red  very  much,  a  man,  who 
employed  himself  very  attentively  in  throwing  small  peas  through 
Jie  eye  of  a  needle,  which  he  would  do  at  a  considerable  dis 
lance,  and  without  once  missing.  Alexander  seeing  him  at  this 
exercise,  ordered  him,  as  we  are  told,  a  present,  suitable  to  his 
employment ;  a  basket  of  peas. 

Alexander  was  of  a  sprightly  disposition,  was  resolute,  and  very 


252 


THE  HISTORY 


enacious  of  his  opinion  ;  which  never  yielded  to  force,  but,  at 
the:  same  lime,  would  submit  immediately  to  reason  and  good 
Bense.  It  is  very  difficult  to  treat  with  persons  of  this  turn  of 
mind.  Philip  accordingly,  notwithstanding  his  double  authority 
of  king  and  father,  believed  it  necessary  to  employ  persuasion 
rather  than  force,  with  his  son,  and  endeavoured  to  make  him 
self  beloved,  rather  than  feared,  by  him. 

An  accident  made  him  entertain  a  very  advantageous  opinion 
of  Alexander  There  had  been  sent  from  Thessaly,  to  Philip,  a 
war-horse  ;  a  noble,  strong,  fiery,  generous  beast,  called  Buce 
phalug.  The  owner  would  not  sell  him  under  thirteen  talents  ;  an 
immense  sum.  The  king  went  into  the  plains,  attended  by  his 
courtiers,  in  order  to  view  the  perfections  of  this  horse  ;  but 
upon  trial,  he  appeared  so  very  fierce,  and  pranced  about  in  sq 
furious  a  manner,  that  no  one  dared  to  mount  him. 

PhiHp,  being  angry  that  so  furious  and  unmanageable  a  crea 
ture  had  been  sent  him,  gave  orders  for  their  carrying  him  back. 
Alexander,  who  wjis  present,  cried  out,  "  What  a  noble  horse  we 
are  going  to  lose,  for  want  of  address  and  boldness  to  manage 
him !"  Philip  at  first  considered  these  words  as  the  effect  o^ 
folly  and  rashness,  so  common  to  young  men ;  but,  as  Alexander 
msisted  still  more  upon  what  he  had  said,  and  was  very  much 
vexed  to  see  so  noble  a  creature  just  going  to  be  sent  home  again, 
his  father  gave  him  leave  to  trj'  what  he  could  do. 

The  young  prince,  overjoyed  at  this  permission,  goes  up  to 
Bucephalus,  takes  hold  of  the  bridle,  and  turns  his  head  to  the 
iun,  having  observed,  that  he  had  been  frightened  at  his  own 
shadow.  Alexander,  therefore,  first  stroked  him  gently,  with  his 
hand,  and  soothed  him  with  his  voice  ;  then,  seeing  his  fierceness 
abate,  and  artfully  taking  this  opportunity,  he  let  fall  his  cloak, 
and,  springing  swiftly  upon  his  back,  first  slackened  the  rein, 
without  once  striking  or  vexing  him  ;  and,  when  he  perceived  that 
his  fire  was  cooled,  that  he  was  no  longer  so  furious  and  violent, 
aad  wanted  only  to  move  forwanl,  he  gave  him  the  rein,  and, 
spurring  him  with  great  vigour,  animated  him,  with  his  voice,  to 
his  full  speed. 

While  this  was  doing,  Philip  and  his  whole  court,  trembled  for 
fear,  and  did  not  once  open  their  lips  ;  but,  when  the  prince,  after 
having  run  his  first  heat,  returned,  with  joy  and  pride,  at  his  hav- 
ing broken  a  horse  which  was  judged  absolutely  ungovernable 
all  the  courtiers  in  general,  endeavoured  to  outvie  one  another  in 
their  applauses  and  congratulations  ;  and  we  are  told  that  Philip 
shed  tears  of  joy  ,  and,  embracing  Alexander,  after  he  was  alight- 
ed, and  kissing  him,  he  said  to  him,  "  My  son,  seek  a  kingdom 
more  worthy  of  thee,  for  Macedon  is  below  thy  merit." 

Alexander,  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne,  saw  him«»«If  sur- 


► 


OF  GREECE. 


253 


rounded  with  extreme  dangers.  The  barbarous  nations,  with 
whom  Philip  contended,  during  his  whole  reign,  thought  this 
change  for  their  advantage  ;  and,  despising  the  youth  and  inex- 
perience  of  the  young  monarch,  resolved  to  seize  this  opportu- 
nity of  regaining  their  freedom,  and  satiating  themselves  with 
plunder.  Nor,  had  he  less  to  fear  from  the  Greeks  themselves ; 
who  now  thought  this  a  convenient  opportunity,  to  restore  their 
ancient  form  of  government,  revenge  their  former  injuries,  and 
reclaim  those  rights  which  they  had  enjoyed  for  ages. 

Alexander,  however,  resolved  to  prevent  their  machinations, 
and  to  give  them  no  time  to  complete  their  confederacies  against 
him.  After  taking  revenge  upon  the  conspirators  against  his 
father,  whom  he  slew  upon  his  tomb,  he  first  conciliated  the  af- 
fections of  the  Macedonians,  by  freeing  them  from  a  vexatious 
and  bodily  slavery,  only  commanding  their  service  in  his  wars. 

The  Macedonians,  reflecting  on  his  precarious  situation,  ad- 
vised him  to  relinquish  Greece,  and  not  persist  in  his  resolution 
of  subduing  it  by  force  ;  to  recover,  by  gentle  methods,  the  bar- 
barians who  had  taken  arms ;  and  to  soothe,  as  it  were,  those 
gliinmerings  of  revolt  and  innovation,  by  prudent  reserve,  com- 
placency, and  insinuations,  in  order  to  conciliate  their  affections. 
However,  Alexander  would  not  listen  to  these  timorous  counsels, 
but  resolved  to  secure  and  support  his  affairs  by  boldness  and 
magnanimity ;  firmly  persuaded,  that,  should  he  relax  in  any 
point,  at  first,  all  his  neighbours  would  fall  upon  him  ;  and  that, 
were  he  to  endeavour  to  compromise  matters,  he  should  be 
obliged  to  give  up  all  Philip's  conquests,  and,  by  that  means, 
confine  his  dominions  to  the  narrow  limits  of  Macedon. 

He  therefore  made  all  possible  haste  to  check  the  arms  of  the 
barbarians,  by  marching  his  troops  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube  ; 
which  he  crossed  in  one  night.  He  defeated  the  king  of  the  Tri- 
balli,  in  a  great  battle ;  made  the  Getae  fly,  at  his  approach  ;  sub- 
dued several  barbarous  nations,  some,  by  the  terror  of  his  name, 
and  others  by  force  of  arms :  and,  notwithstanding  the  arrogant 
answers  of  their  ambassadors,  he  taught  them  to  dread  a  danger, 
which  they  found  but  too  well  prepared  to  overwhelm  them'! 

Whilst  Alexander  was  thus  employed,  at  a  distance,  against  the 
barbarians,  all  the  cities  of  Greece,  who  were  animated  more 
particularly  by  Demosthenes,  formed  a  powerful  alliance  against 
him.  A  false  report  which  prevailed  of  his  death,  inspired  the 
Thebans  with  a  boldness,  that  proved  their  ruin.  They  cut  to 
pieces  part  of  the  Macedonian  garrison,  in  their  citadel.  Demos 
thenes,  on  the  other  side,  was  every  day  haranguing  the  people ; 
and,  fired  with  coiltempt  for  Alexander,  whom  he  called  a  child 
and  a  hair-brained  boy,  he  assured  the  Athenians,  with  a  decisive 
tone  of  voice,  that  they  had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  new  king  of 


254 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GllKECE. 


255 


Macedon,  who  diJ  not  dare  to  stir  out  of  his  kingdom,  hut  would 
think  himself  vastly  happy,  could  he  sit  peaceably  on  his  throne. 
At  the  same  time,  he  wrote  letters  upon  letters,  to  Attalus,  one 
of  Philip's  lieutenants  in  Asia  Minor,  to  excite  him  to  rebel.    This 
Attalus  was  uncle  to  Cleopatra,  Philip's  second  wife,  and  was  very 
much  disposed  to  listen  to  Demosthenes'  proposals.     Neverthe- 
less, as  Alexander  was  grown  very  diflident  of  him,  for  which  he 
knew  there  was  but  too  much  reason,  he  therefore,  to  eradicate 
from  his  mind  all  the  suspicions  he  might  entertain,  and  the  bet 
ter  to  screen  his  designs,  sent  all  Demosthenes'  letters  to  thai 
prince  :  but  Alexander  saw  through  all  his  artitices,  and  thereupon 
ordered  Hecataeus,  one  of  his  commanders,  whom  he  had  sent  into 
Asia  for  that  purpose,  to  have  him  assassinated  ;  which  was  exe 
cuted  accordingly.  The  death  of  Attalu;*  restored  tranquillity  to  the 
army,  and  entirely  destroyed  the  seeds  of  discord  and  rebellion 
The  object  which  seized  Alexander's  earliest  ambition,  was  tht 
conquest  of  Persia  ;  and  he  now  exj»ected  that  he  would  have 
leisure  and  opportunity  to  prepare  for  so  great  an  enterprise  ;  but 
he  was  soon  called  to  a  new  undertaking.     The  Athenians,  The- 
bans,  and  Lacedsemonians,  united  against  him  ;  hoping,  by  the  as- 
sistance of  Persia,  to  recover  their  former  freedom.     In  order  to 
persuade  the  Greeks  to  this,  Demosthenes  made  use  of  a  device, 
which  had  more  cunning  in  it  than  wisdom.    He  caused  it  to  be  re- 
ported, that  Alexander  was  slain  in  a  battle  against  the  Triballi ; 
and  he  produced  a  man  to  the  assembly,  who  ventured  to  affirm, 
ttiat  he  was  present  and  wounded,  when  his  general  was  slain. 
These  false  reports,  which  serve  for  a  day,  are  but  bad  policy  ; 
like  a  false  alurm,  in  battle,  the  people  may  sometimes  be  mocked 
by  them ;  but,  in  the  end,  the  success  will  prove  as  ridiculous,  as 
the  invention ;  for,  as  those  who  tind  themselves  at  one  time  abused 
by  such,  at  other  times  neglect  the  real  call  of  truth ;  by  being  sum- 
moned without  occasion,  they  fatally  despise  the  hour  of  danger. 
This  unfortunate  obstacle  obliged  Alexander  to  turn  his  sword 
fr»m  the  Persians,  against  the  Greeks  ;  of  whose  assistance,  he 
had  just  before  assured  himself.     Expedition  and  activity  were 
the  characteristics  of  this  monarch  :  he  led  his  army  against  the 
Greeks,  with  so  much  celerity,  that  his  appearance  before  them 
gave  the  first  news  of  his  preparation. 

He  appeared  so  suddenly  in  Boeotia,  that  the  Thebans  could 
scarcely  believe  their  eyes;  and,  having  arrived  before  their  walls, 
he  was  willing  to  give  them  time  to  repent ;  and  only  demanded  to 
have  Phoenix  and  Prothutes,  the  two  chief  ringleaders  of  the  re- 
volt, delivered  up  ;  and  published,  by  sound  of  trumpet,  a  general 
pardon,  to  all  who  should  come  over  to  him.  ^ut  the  Thebans,  by 
way  of  insult,  demanded  to  have  Philotas  and  Antipater  delivereii 


to  them  ;  and  irvited,  by  a  declaration,  all  who  were  solicitous  for 
the  Hberty  of  Greece,  to  join  with  them  in  its  defence. 

Alexander,  finding  it  impossible  to  overcome  their  obstinacy 
by  offers  of  peace,  saw,  with  grief,  that  he  should  be  forced  to 
employ  his  power,  and  decide  the  afi^iir  by  force  of  arms.  A 
great  battle  was  thereupon  fought;  in  which,  the  Thebans  exerted 
themselves  with  a  bravery  and  ardour  much  beyond  their  strength  ; 
for  the  enemy  exceeded  them  vastly  in  numbers.  But,  after  a  long 
and  vigorous  resistance,  such  as  survivedpf  the  Macedonian  garri- 
son m  the  citadel,  coming  down  from  it,  and  charging  the  Thebans 
in  the  rear  ;  being  surrounded  on  all  sides,  the  greater  part.of 
tftem  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  the  city  taken  and  plundered. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  words  to  express  the  dreadful  calami- 
ties which  the  Thebans  suffered  on  this  occasion.  Some  Thra- 
cians,  having  pulled  down  the  house  of  a  virtuous  lady  of  quahty, 
Timoclea  by  name,  carried  off  all  her  goods  and  treasures  ;  and 
their  captain,  having  seized  the  lady,  and  committed  violence 
upon  her  person,  afterwards  inquired  whether  she  had  not  con- 
cealed gold  and  silver.  Timoclea,  animated  by  an  ardent  desire 
of  revenge,  replying,  that  she  had  hidden  some,  took  him,  with 
herself  only,  into  her  garden  ;  and,  showing  him  a  well,  told  him, 
that  the  instant  she  saw  the  enemy  enter  the  city,  she  herself  had 
thrown  into  it  the  most  precious  things  in  her  possession.  The 
officer,  overjoyed  at  what  he  heard,  drew  near  the  well,  and, 
stooping  down  to  see  its  depth,  Timoclea,  who  was  behind,  push- 
ing him  with  all  her  strength,  threw  him  in,  and  afterwards  killed 
him,  with  gi*eat  stones. 

She  was  instantly  seized  by  the  Thracians,  and,  being  bound  in 
chains,  was  carried  before  Alexander.  The  prince  perceived  im- 
mediately, by  her  mien,  that  she  was  a  woman  of  quality,  and 
great  spirit ;  for  she  followed  those  brutal  wretches,  with  a  very 
haughty  air,  and  without  discovering  the  least  fear.  Alexander 
asking  her  who  she  w^as,  Timoclea  replied,  "  I  am  sister  to 
Theagenes,  who  fought  against  Philip  for  the  liberty  of  Greece, 
and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  ChaBronea,  where  he  commanded.*' 
The  prince,  admiring  her  generous  answer,  and  still  more  the 
actions  she  had  performed,  gave  orders  that  she  should  have  leave 
to  retire,  wherever  she  pleased,  with  her  children. 

Alexander  then  debated,  in  council,  how  to  act  with  regard  to 
Thebes.  The  Phocians,  and  the  people  of  Plataea,  Thespiae, 
and  Orchomenus,  who  were  all  in  alliance  with  Alexander,  and 
had  shared  in  his  victory,  represented  to  him  the  cruel  treatment 
they  had  met  with  from  the  Thebans,  who  had  also  destroyed 
their  cities,  and  reproached  them  with  the  zeal  which  they  had 
always  discovered  in  favour  of  the  Persians,  against  the  Greeks, 
who  held  them  in  the  utmost  detestation :  the  proof  of  which 


.i#! 


256 


THE  HiSTOUY 


H 


tne  oath  they  had  all  taken  to  destroy  Thebes,  after  they  should 
have  vanquished  the  Persians. 

Cleades,  one  of  the  prisoners,  being  permitted  to  speak,  en- 
deavoured to  excuse,  in  some  measure,  the  fault  of  the  Thcbans  ; 
a  fault,  which,  in  his  opinion,  should  be  imputed  to  a  rash  and 
credulous  imprudence,  rather  than  to  depravity  of  will,  and  de- 
clared perfidy.  He  remonstrated,  that  his  countrymen,  upon  a 
false  report  of  Alexander's  death,  had  indeed  too  rashly  brokeji 
into  rebellion,  not  against  the  king,  but  against  his  successors, 
rhat,  what  crimes  soever  they  might  have  committed,  they  had 
been  punished  for  them,  with  the  utmost  severity,  by  the  dread- 
ful calamity  which  had  befallen  their  city  ;  that  there  now  re- 
mained in  it  none  but  women,  children,  and  old  men,  from  whom 
they  had  nothing  to  fear  ;  and  who  were  so  much  the  greater  ob- 
jecis  of  compassion,  as  they  had  been  no  wayp  concerned  in  the 
revolt.  He  concluded,  with  reminding  Alexander,  that  Thebes, 
which  had  given  birth  to  so  many  gods  and  heroes,  several  of 
whom  were  that  king's  ancestors,  had  also  been  the  seat  of  his  fa- 
ther Philip's  rising  glory,  and  like  a  second  native  country  to  him. 

These  motives  urged  by  Cleades,  were  very  strong  and  pow- 
erful ;  nevertheless,  the  anger  of  the  conqueror  prevailed,  and 
the  city  was  destroyed.  However,  he  set  at  liberty  the  priests  ; 
all  such  as  had  right  of  hospitality  with  the  Macedonians  ;  the  de- 
scendants of  Pindar,  the  famous  poet,  who  had  done  so  much  hon- 
our to  Greece  ;  and  such  as  had  opposed  the  revolt.  But  all  the 
rest,  in  number  above  thirty  thousand,  he  sold  ;  and  upwards  of 
six  thousand  had  been  killed  in  battle.  The  Athenians  were  so 
Bcifelbly  affected  at  the  sad  disaster  which  had  befallen  Thebes, 
that,  being  about  to  solemnise  the  festival  of  the  great  mysteries, 
they  suspended  them,  on  account  of  their  extreme  grief;  and  re- 
ceived, with  (he  greatest  humanity,  all  those  who  had  fled  from  the 
battle,  and  the  plunder  of  Thebes,  and  made  Athens  their  asylum 

Alexander's  so  sudden  arrival  in  Greece,  had  very  much  abat 
ed  the  haughtiness  of  the  Athenians,  and  extinguished  Demosthe- 
nes' vehemence  and  fire  :  but  the  ruin  of  Thebes,  which  was  still 
more  sudden,  threw  them  into  the  utmost  consternation.  They 
therefore  had  recourse  to  intreaties,  and  sent  a  deputation  to 
Alexander,  to  implore  his  clemency ;  Demosthenes  was  among 
them ;  but  he  had  no  sooner  arrived  at  Mount  Cytheron,  than, 
dreading  the  anger  of  that  prince,  he  quitted  the  embassy,  and 
returned  home. 

Alexander  sent  immediately  to  Athens,  requiring  the  citizens 
to  deliver  up  to  him  ten  orators,  whom  he  supposed  to  have  been 
the  chief  instruments  in  forming  the  league  which  Philip,  hw 
father,  had  defeated  at  Chaeronea.  It  was  on  this  occasion,  that 
Demosthenes  related  to  the  people  the  fable  of  the  wolves  and 


OF  GREECE.  257 

dogs ;  111  which,  it  is  supposed  that  the  wolves  one  day  told  the 
Rheep,  that,  in  case  they  desired  to  be  at  peace  with  them,  they 
must  deliver  up  to  them  the  dogs,  who  were  their  guard. 

The  application  was  easy  and  natural ;  especially  with  respect 
to  the  orators,  who  were  justly  compared  to  dogs,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  watch,  to  bark,  and  to  fight,  in  order  to  save  the  lives  of 
the  flock.  In  this  afflicting  dilemma  of  the  Athenians,  who  could 
not  prevail  with  themselves  to  deliver  up  their  orators  to  certain 
death,  though  they  had  no  other  way  to  save  their  city,  Demades, 
whom  Alexander  had  honoured  with  his  friendship,  offered  to 
undertake  the  embassy  alone,  and  intercede  for  them. 

The  king,  whether  he  had  satiated  his  revenge,  or  endeavoured 
to  blot  out,  if  possible,  by  some  act  of  clemency,  the  barbarous 
action  he  had  just  before  committed  ;  or  rather,  to  remove  the 
several  obstacles  which  might  retard  the  execution  of  his  grand 
design,  and,  by  that  means,  not  leave,  during  his  absence,  the 
least  pretence  for  murmurs,  waved  his  demand  with  regard  to 
the  delivery  of  the  orators,  and  was  pacified  by  their  sending 
Caridemus  into  banishment ;  who,  being  a  native  of  Oraea,  a  small 
country  of  Peloponnesus,  had  been  presented,  by  the  Athenians, 
with  his  freedom,  for  the  services  he  had  done  the  republic. 

He  was  son-in-law  to  Chersobleptus,  king  of  Thrace  ;  had 
learned  the  art  of  war  under  Iphicrates  ;  and  had  himself  fre- 
quently commanded  the  Athenian  armies.  To  avoid  the  pursuit 
of  Alexander,  he  took  refuge  with  the  king  of  Persia.  As  for  the 
Athenians,  he  not  only  forgave  them  the  several  injuries  he  pre- 
tended to  have  received,  but  expressed  a  particular  regard  for 
them,  exhorting  them  to  apply  themselves  vigorously  to  public 
affairs  ;  and  to  keep  a  watchful  eye  over  the  several  transactions 
which  might  happen  ;  because,  in  case  of  his  death,  their  city 
was  to  give  laws  to  the  rest  of  Greece. 

Historians  relate,  that,  many  years  after  this  expedition,  he  was 
seized  with  deep  remorse  for  the  calamity  he  had  brought  upon 
the  Thebans,  and  that  this  made  him  behave  with  much  greater 
humanity  towards  many  other  nations.  So  dreadful  an  example 
of  severity,  towards  so  powerful  a  city  as  Thebes,  spread  the 
terror  of  his  arms  through  all  Greece,  and  made  all  things  give 
way  before  him.  He  summoned,  at  Corinth,  the  assembly  of  the 
several  states  and  free  cities  of  Greece,  to  obtain  from  them  the 
game  supreme  command  against  the  Persians,  which  had  been 
granted  his  father,  a  little  before  his  death. 

No  assembly  ever  debated  upon  a  more  important  subject.  It 
was  the  western  world  deliberating  upon  the  ruin  of  the  east , 
and  the  method  for  executing  a  revenge,  which  had  been  suspend- 
ed more  than  an  age.  The  assembly  held  at  ^his  time,  gave  rise 
to  erents,  the.  relation  of  which  appears  astonishing,  and  almost 


1' 


258 


THE  HISTORY 


incredible  ;  and  to  revolutions,  which  contributed  to  change  the 
disposition  of  most  things  in  the  poHtical  world. 

To  form  such  a  design,  required  a  prince,  bold,  enterprising, 
and  experienced  in  war ;  one  of  great  views,  who,  having  acquired 
a  great  name  by  his  exploits,  was  not  to  be  intimidated  by  danger, 
nor  checked  by  obstacles  ;  but,  above  all,  a  monarch,  who  had 
the  supreme  authority  over  all  the  states  of  Greece,  none  of 
which,  singly,  was  powerful  enough  to  make  so  arduous  an  at- 
tempt ;  and  which  required,  in  order  for  their  acting  in  concert,  to 
be  subject  to  one  chief,  who  might  give  motion  to  the  several  parts 
of  that  great  body,  by  making  them  all  concur  to  the  same  end. 

Such  a  prince,  was  Alexander :  it  was  not  diflicult  for  him  to 
rekindle,  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  their  ancient  hatred  of  the 
Persians,  their  perpetual  and  irreconcilable  enemies  ;  whose  des- 
truction they  had  more  than  once  sworn,  and  whom  they  had  de- 
termined to  extirpate,  in  case  an  opportunity  should  present  it- 
self; a  hatred,  which  the  intestine  feuds  of  the  Greeks,  mighl 
indeed  have  suspended,  but  could  never  extinguish. 

The  immortal  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks,  notwitb 
standingthe  vigorous  opposition  of  the  prodigious  army  of  the  Per- 
sians, showed  plainly  what  might  be  expected  from  an  army  com- 
posed of  the  flower  of  the  forces  of  all  the  cities  of  Greece,  and 
those  of  Macedon,  commanded  by  generals  formed  under  Philip  ; 
and  to  say  all  in  a  word,  led  on  by  Alexander.  The  delibera- 
tions of  the  assembly  were  therefore  very  short ;  and  that  prince 
was  unanimously  appointed  generalissimo  against  the  Persians. 

Immediately,  a  great  number  of  olhcers  and  governors  of  cities, 
with  many  philosophers,  waited  upon  Alexander,  to  congratulate 
him  upon  his  election.  He  flattered  himself  that  Diogenes  of 
Synope,  who  was  then  at  Corinth,  would  also  come,  like  the  rest 
and  pay  his  compliments.  This  philosopher,  who  entertained  a 
very  mean  opinion  of  grandeur,  thought  it  improper  to  congratu- 
late men  just  upon  their  exaltation,  but  that  mankind  ought  to  wait, 
Idl  those  persons  should  perform  actions  worthy  of  their  high 
stations. 

Diogenes,  therefore,  still  continued  at  home;  upon  which,  Alex- 
ander, attended  by  all  his  courtiers,  made  him  a  visit.  The  phi- 
losopher was,  at  that  time,  lying  down  in  the  sun  ;  but,  seeing  so 
great  a  crowd  of  people  advancing  towards  him,  he  sat  up,  and 
fixed  his  eyes  on  Alexander.  This  prince,  surprised  to  behold  so 
famous  a  philosopher  reduced  to  such  extreme  poverty,  after 
saluting  him,  in  the  kindest  manner,  asked,  **  whether  he  wanted 
any  thing  ?'*  Diogenes  replied,  "  Yes,  that  you  would  staml  a 
little  out  of  my  sunshine." 

This  answer  raised  the  contempt  and  indignation  of  all  the  cour 
tiers  'f  but  the  monarch,  struck  with  the  philosopher's  greatness  of 


OF  GREECE 


259 


jioul — **  Were  1  not,  Alexander,"  says  he, "  I  would  be  Diogenes." 
This  presents  us  with  the  true  image  of  Alexander  and  Diogenes. 
How  great  and  poAcrful  soever  that  prince  might  think  himself, 
he  could  not  deny  LL-nself,  on  this  occasion,  inferior  to  a  man  to 
whom  he  could  give,  and  from  whom  he  could  take,  nothing. 

Alexander,  before  he  set  out  for  Asia,  was  determined  to  con- 
sult the  oracle  of  Apollo.  He  therefore  went  to  Delphos,  where 
he  happened  to  arrive  in  those  days  which  are  called  unlucky  ; 
a  season,  in  which  people  are  forbidden  to  consult  the  oracle  ; 
and,  accoidingly,  the  priestess  refused  to  go  to  the  temple.  Bui 
Alexander,  who  could  not  bear  any  contradiction  to  his  will,  took 
her  torcibly  by  the  arm,  and,  as  he  was  leading  hei  to  the  tem 
pie,  she  cried  out,  **  My  son,  thou  art  irresistible."  This  was 
all  he  desired  ;  and,  catching  hold  of  these  words,  which  he  con- 
sidered  as  spoken  by  the  oracle,  he  set  out  for  Macedonia,  in  ordei 
to  make  preparations  for  his  great  expedition. 

Alexander,  having  arrived  in  his  kingdom,  held  a  council  with 
the  chief  oflicers  of  his  army,  and  the  nobles  of  his  court,  on  the- 
expedition  he  meditated  against  Persia,  and  the  measures  he  should 
take,  in  order  to  succeed  in  it.    The  whole  assembly  were  unani 
mous,  except  in  one  article.     Antipater  and  Parmenio  were  of 
opinion,  that  the  king,  before  he  engaged  in  an  enterprise  which 
would  necessarily  be  a  long  one,  ought  to  make  choice  of  a  con 
sort,  in  order  to  secure  himself  a  successor  to  his  throne. 

But  Alexander,  who  was  of  a  violent,  fiery  temper,  did  not  ap- 
prove of  this  advice  ;  and  believed,  that,  after  he  had  been  nomi- 
nated generalissimo  of  the  Greeks,  and  that  his  father  had  left 
him  an  invincible  army,  it  would  be  a  shame  for  him  to  lose  his 
time  in  solemnising  his  nuptials,  and  waiting  for  its  fruits  :  foi 
which  reason,  he  determined  to  set  out  immediately. 

Accordingly,  he  offered  up  very  splendid  sacrifices  to  the  gods, 
and  caused  to  be  celebrated  at  Dia,  a  city  of  Macedon,  scenica) 
games,  which  had  been  instituted  by  one  of  his  ancestors,  in  hon- 
our of  Jupiter  and  the  Muses.  This  festival  continued  nine  days, 
agreeably  to  the  number  of  those  goddesses.  He  had  a  tent 
raised,  large  enough  to  hold  a  hundred  tables,  on  which,  nine  hun- 
dred covers  might  be  laid.  To  this  feast,  the  several  princes  of  hii 
family,  all  the  ambassadors,  generals,  and  officers,  were  invited. 

Before  he  set  out  upon  his  great  expedition,  he  settled  the 
affairs  of  Macedon,  over  which  he  appointed  Antipater,  as  vice- 
roy, with  twelve  thousand  foot,  and  nearly  the  same  number  ot 
horse.  He  also  inquired  into  the  domestic  affairs  of  his  friends, 
giving  to  one  an  estate  in  land,  to  another  a  village,  to  a  third  the 
revenues  of  a  town,  to  a  fourth  the  toll  of  a  harbour.  As  all  the 
revenues  of  his  demesnes,  were  already  employed  and  exhausted, 
by  his  donations,  Perdiccas  said  to  him,  "My  lord,  what  is  it  you 


260 


THE  HISTORY 


reserve  for  yourself?"  Alexander  replied,  "Hope;"  upon 
which,  Perdiccas  said, "  the  same  hope  ought  therefore  to  satisfy 
us  ;"  and  so  refused,  very  generously,  to  accept  of  what  the 
king  had  appointed  him. 

After  having  completely  settled  his  affairs  in  Macedonia,  and 
used  all  the  precautions  imaginable,  to  prevent  any  troubles  from 
arising  during  his  absence,  he  set  out  for  Asia,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  spring.  His  army  consisted  of  little  more  than  thirty  thou- 
sand foot,  and  four  or  five  thousand  horse  ;  but  they  were  all 
brave  men,  well  disciplined,  and  inured  to  fatigues.  They  had 
made* several  campaigns  under  Philip,  and  were,  each  of  them, 
in  case  of  necessity,  capable  of  commanding  ;  most  of  the  officers 
were  nearly  sixty  years  of  age,  and  the  common  men  fifty  ;  and, 
when  they  were  either  assembled,  or  drawn  up  at  the  head  of  a 
camp,  they  had  the  air  of  a  venerable  senate. 

Parmenio  commanded  the  infantry  ;  Philotas,  his  son,  had  eigh» 
teen  hundred  horse  under  him  ;  and  Callas,  the  son  of  Harpalus 
the  same  number  of  Thessalian  cavalry.  The  rest  of  the  horse  • 
men  were  composed  of  natives  of  the  several  states  of  Greece, 
and,  amounting  to  six  hundred,  had  their  particular  commander. 
The  Thracians  and  Paeonians,  who  were  always  in  front,  were 
headed  by  Cassander.  Alexander  began  his  march  along  the  lake 
Cercinum,  towards  Amphipolis,  crossed  the  river  Strymon,  near 
its  mouth,  afterwards  the  Hebrus,  and,  in  twenty  days,  arrived 
at  Sestos. 

He  then  commanded  Parmenio  to  cross  over  from  Sestos  to 
Abydos,  with  all  the  horse,  and  part  of  the  foot ;  which  he  ac- 
cordingly  did,  with  the  assistance  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  galleys, 
and  several  flat-bottomed  vessels  ;  while  he  himself  crossed  over 
the  Hellespont,  steering  his  galley  with  his  own  hands :  and, 
when  he  arrived  near  the  shore,  as  if  to  take  possession  of  the 
continent,  he  leaped  from  his  ship,  in  complete  armour,  and  tes- 
tified many  transports  of  joy. 

This  confidence  soon  began  to  diffuse  itself  over  all  the  rest  of 
the  army :  it  inspired  his  soldiers  with  so  much  courage  and  se 
curity,  that  they  fancied  themselves  marching,  not  to  a  precarious 
war,  but  a  certain  victory.    Having  arrived  at  the  city  of  Lamp- 
sacus,  which  he  was  determined  to  destroy,  in  order  to  punish 
the  rebellion  of  its  inhabitants,  Anaximenes,  a  native  of  that  place 
came  to  him.     This  man,  who  was  a  famous  historian,  had  beer 
very  intimate  with  Philip,  his  father  ;  and  Alexander  himself  had 
a  great  esteem  for  him,  having  been  his  pupil.  The  king,  suspect- 
ing the  business  he  came  upon,  to  be  beforehand  with  him 
swore,  in  express  terms,  that  he  would  never  grant  his  request 
*  The  favoui  I  have  to  desire  of  you,"  says  Anaximenes,  "  is. 
that  you  would  destroy  Laropsacus."    By  this  witty  evasion,  thn 


OF  GREECE. 


261 


historian  saved  his  country.  From  thence,  Alexander  went  to 
1  roy,  where  he  paid  great  honours  to  the  shade  of  Achilles  and 
caused  games  to  be  celebrated  around  his  tomb.  He  admired  and 

life,  a  faithful  friend  in  Patroclus,  and,  after  death,  a  noble  pane 
gyrist  in  Homer.  ^ 

When  the  news  of  Alexander's  landing  in  Asia,  was  brought  to 
Darius,  he  testified  the  utmost  contempt  for  the  Macedonian 
army,  and  indignation  at  the  presumption  of  their  generals.  In  a 
letter  which  he  wrote,  he  reprehended  his  audacious  insolence, 
and  gave  orders  to  his  various  governors,  in  the  different  parts  of  ' 
his  dominions,  that,  if  they  took  Alexander  alive,  they  should  whip 
him  with  rods,  make  prisoners  of  the  whole  army,  and  send  rhem 
as  slaves,  to  one  of  the  most  deserted  parts  of  his  dominions.      ' 
1  hus,  confiding  m  the  glittering,  but  barbarous  multitude,  which 
he  commanded,  he  disposed  of  the  enemy  as  already  vanquished. 
13ut  confidence  goes  only  a  short  part  of  the  road  to  success.  The 
great  numbers  which  he  had  gathered,  brought  only  unwieldy 
splendour  into  the  field  ;  and,  instead  of  procuring  him  security 
increased  his  embarrassments. 

Alexander  having,  at  length,  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Grani- 
cus,  a  river  of  Phrygia,  there  first  found  the  Persians  disposed  to 
dispute  his  passage.     The  Persian  Satraps,  taking  possession  of 
the  higher  banks,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
foot,  and  upwards  of  ten  thousand  horse,  seemed  to  promise  them- 
selves victory.     Memnon,  who  was  a  Rhodian,  and  commanded, 
under  Darius   all  the  coast  of  Asia,  had  advised  the  generals  not 
o  venture  a  battle,  but  lay  waste  the  plains  and  even  the  cities 
hereby  to  starve  Alexander's  army,  and  oblige  him  to  return 
back  into  Europe.  Memnon  was  the  best  of  all  Darius' generals 
and  had  been  the  principal  agent  in  his  victories.     It  is  not  ea«v 
to  determine  what  in  Memnon  we  ought  to  admire  most ;  whether 
his  great  wisdom  in  council,  his  courage  and  capacity  in  the  field 
or  his  zeal  and  attachment  to  his  sovereign.    The  counsel  given 
by  him,  on  this  occasion,  was  excellent,  when  we  consider  that 
Ins  enemy  was  fiery  and  impetuous,  had  neither  town,  nor  ma^a- 
zine,  nor  place  ol  retreat ;  that  he  was  entering  a  country  to  which 
he  was  absolutely  a  stranger,  and  inhabited  by  enemies ;  that  de- 
ays  alone  would  weaken  and  ruin  him ;  and  that  his  only  hopes 
lay  in  immediately  giving  battle. 

But  Arsites,  a  Phrygian  Satrap,  opposed  the  opinion  of  Mem- 
non  ;  and  protested  he  would  never  suffer  the  Grecians  to  make 
such  havoc  in  the  territories  which  he  governed.  This  ill  counsel 
prevailea  over  that  of  the  Rhodian  ;  whom  the  Persians,  inhap- 
pily  for  them,  suspected  of  a  design  to  protract  the  war,  and,  by 
Ihat  means,  make  hiinself  necessary  to  Darius 


,,2  THE  HISTORY 

Alexander,  in  the  mean  time,  marched  «", -t  {he  ^-J^^^^^^ 
heavv  armed  infantry,  drawn  up  m  two  lines,  with  the  cavalry  in 
the  wine^  and  the  baggage  in  the  rear.     Having  arrived  upon  the 
banks  oftheGranicu^  Parmenio  advised  him  to  encamp  there,  in 
baUlea  ray  ;  in  order  that  his  forces  might  have  time  to  restthem- 
selves  and  not  to  pass  the  river  till  very  early  next  morning,  be- 
ctse  the  enemy  would  then  be  less  able  to  prevent  him.    He  add- 
ed   that  It  wouUl  be  too  dangerous  to  attempt  crossing  a  river,  in 
Sh tof  an  enemy  ;  especially,  as  that  before  them  was  deep,  an 
tfbanks  very  craggy  ;  so  that  the  Persian  cavalry,  who  waited 
the^  approach  b  baUle  array,  on  the  other  side  might  easdyde- 
feTthem  before  they  were  drawn  up;  that,  besides  the  loss  which 
wfud  be  su  Gained  on  this  occasion,  this  enterprise,  m  case  it 
rould  prove  unsuccessful,  would  be  of  dangerous  consequence 
Jo  their  future  affairs;  the  fame  and  glory  of  arms  depending 

'"nterekteTe'reasons  were  not  able  to  make  the  least  im- 
press  on  on  Alexander  ;  who  declared,  that  it  would  be  a  shame 
Should  he  after  crossing  the  Hellespont,  suffer  his  progress  to  be 
retanied  bfa  ^^^^  Jot  so  he  called  the  Gramcus,  out  of  con- 
tern?  thai  they  ought  to  take  advantage  of  the  terror  which  the 
uddenness  of  his  arrival,  and  the  boldness  of  the  att^P^*  ^^ 
Boread  amon- the  Persians;  and  answer  the  high  opinion  the  world, 
cSed  othis  courage,'and  the  valour  of  the  f  cedonians 

The  enemy's  horse,  which  was  very  numerous,  lined  the  whole 
.lu)re!  and  formed  a  large  front,  in  order  to  oppose  Alexander, 
wherever  he  should  endeavour  to  pass  ;  and  the  foot,  which  con- 
Ited  Ihiefly  of  Greeks  in  Darius'  service,  was  posted  behind 
upon  an  easy  ascent.     The  two  armies  continued  a  long  time  id 
Bi^ght  of  each  other,  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  as  ^^  dreading  the 
evont      The  Persians  waited  till  the  Macedonians  should  enter 
the  river  in  order  to  charge  them  to  advantage  upon  their  landing 
Z^llTuLv  seemed  to  be  making  choice  of  a  place  proper  for 
crossing,  and  to  survey  the  countenance  of  their  enemies. 

Upon  this,  Alexander  ordered  his  horse  to  be  brought,  com- 

manded  the  noblemen  of  the  court  to  follow  him,  and  behave  gal- 

Ltly.     He  himself  commanded  the  right  wing,  and  Parmenio  he 

left     The  king  first  caused  a  strong  detachment  to  march  into  the 

uv'er,  himself  following  it  with  the  rest  of  the  forces.    He  made 

Parmenio  advance  afterwards  with  the  left  J^^'^S  *•  ^«  ^/^f  ^^J^f^^ 

•      on  the  right  wing  into  the  river,  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  troops; 

the  trumpets  sounding,  and  the  whole  army  raising  cries  of  joy. 

The  Persians,  seeing  this  detachment  advance  forward,  began  o 

let  fly  their  arrows,  and  march  to  a  place  where  the  declivity 

was  not  so  great,  in  order  to  keep  the  Macedomans  from  lamiing. 

Bui  now  the  horse  wigaged,  with  great  fury ;  one  part  endeavour- 


OF  GREECE. 


263 


mg  to  land,  and  the  other  striving  to  prevent  them  The  Mace- 
donians, whose  cavalry  was  vastly  inferior  m  number,  beside* 
the  advantage  of  the  ground,  were  wounded  with  the  darts  shot 
from  the  eminence  ;  not  to  mention  that  the  flower  of  the  Per- 
sian horse  were  drawn  together  in  this  place,  and  that  Memnon, 
in  concert  with  his  sons,  commanded  there 

The  Macedonians  at  first  gave  ground,  after  having  lost  the  first 
ranks,  which  made  a  vigorous  defence.     Alexander,  who  had  fol- 
lowed them  closely,  and  reinforced  them  with  his  best  troops, 
headed  them  himself,  animated  them  by  his  presence,  pushed  the 
Persians  and  routed  them  ;  upon  which,  the  whole  army  followed 
after,  crossed  the  river,  and  attacked  the  enemy  on  all  sides.  Alex- 
ander first  charged  the  thickest  part  of  the  enemy's  horse,  in 
which  the  generals  fought.     He  himself  was  particularly  con- 
spicuous by  his  shield,  and  the  plume  of  feathers  that  overshadow- 
ed his  helmet ;  on  the  two  sides  of  which,  there  rose  two  wings, 
as  it  were,  of  a  great  length,  and  so  vastly  white,  that  they  dazy.led 
the  eyes  of  the  beholder.    The  charge  was  very  furious  ab6ut  his 
person  ;  and,  though  only  the  horse  engaged,  they  fought  like  foot, 
man  to  man,  without  giving  way,  on  either  side;  every  one  striving 
to  repulse  his  adversary,  and  gain  ground  upon  him.   Spithrobates, 
lieutenant-governor  of  Ionia,  and  son-in-law  to  Darius,  distinguish- 
ed himself,  above  the  rest  of  the  generals,  by  his  superior  bravery 
Being  surrounded  by  forty  Persian  lords,  all  of  them  his  relations, 
of  experienced  valour,  and  who  never  moved  from  his  side,  he 
carried  terror  wherever  he  went.     Alexander  observing  ia  how 
gallant  a  manner  he  signalised  himself,  clapped  spurs  to  his  horse, 
and  advanced  towards  him.    Immediately,  they  engaged,  and  each, 
having  thrown  a  javelin,  wounded  the  other  slightly.   Spithrobates 
foils  furiously  sword  in  hand  upon  Alexander,  who  being  prepared 
for  him,  thrusts  his  pike  into  his  face,  and  laid  him  dead  at  his  feet. 
At  that  very  moment,  Rasaces,  brother  of  that  nobleman,  charging 
him  on  the  side,  gave  him  so  furious  a  blow  on  the  head,  with  his 
battle-axe,  that  he  beat  off  his  plume,  but  went  no  deeper  than  the 
hair.    As  he  was  going  to  repeat  his  blow  on  the  head,  which  now 
appeared  through  his  fractured  helmet,  Clitus  cut  off  Rasaces' 
hand,  with  one  stroke  of  his  scimitar,  and,  by  that  means  saved  his 
sovereign's  life.     The  danger  to  which  Alexander  had  been  ex 
posed,  greatly  animated  the  courage  of  his  soldiers,  who  now 
performed  wonders. 

The  Persians,  in  the  centre  of  the  cavalry,  upon  whom  the  light 
armed  troops,  who  had  been  posted  in  the  intervals  of  the  horse, 
poured  a  perpetual  discharge  of  darts,  being  unable  to^ustain  any 
longer  the  attack  of  the  Macedonians,  who  struck  them  all  in  the 
face,  the  two  wings  were  immediately  broken  and  put  to  flight. 

Alexander  did  not  pursue  them  long,  but  turned  about  immedi- 

y. 


264 


THE  HISTORY 


ately  to  charge  the  foot.  These  at  first  stood  their  ground  ;  but, 
when  they  saw  themselves  attacked  at  the  same  time  by  the  caval- 
ry, and  the  Macedonian  phalanx  which  had  crossed  the  river,  and 
that  the  battalions  were  now  engaged,  those  of  the  Persians  did 
not  make  either  a  long  or  a  vigorous  resistance,  and  were  soon  put 
to  flight ;  except  the  Grecian  infantry,  in  the  service  of  Darius. 
This  body  of  foot  retiring  to  a  hill,  demanded  a  promise  from  Alex- 
ander, to  let  them  march  away  unmolested;  but,  following  the  dic- 
tates of  his  wrath,  rather  than  those  of  reason,  he  rushed  into  the 
midst  of  this  body,  and  presently  lost  his  horse,  (not  Bucephalus) 
who  was  killed,  with  the  thrust  of  a  sword. 

The  battle  was  so  hot  around  him,  that  most  of  the  Macedoni- 
ans, who  lost  their  lives  on  this  occasion,  fell  here.  They  were 
opposed  by  men  who  were  well  disciplined,  had  been  inured  to 
war,  and  fought  in  despair.  They  were  all  cut  to  pieces,  two 
thousand  excepted,  who  were  taken  prisoners.  A  great  number 
of  the  Persian  commanders  lay  dead  on  the  spot.  Arsites  fled 
into  Phrygia,  where,  it  is  said,  he  laid  violent  hands  on  himself, 
for  having  been  the  cause  that  the  battle  was  fought. 

Twenty  thousand  foot,  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  horse- 
men,  were  killed  in  this  engagement,  on  the  side  of  the  barbarians: 
and,  of  the  Macedonians,  twenty -five  of  the  royal  horse  were  kill- 
ed, at  the  first  attack.  Alexander  ordered  Lysippus  to  make  their 
statues  in  brass,  all  of  which  were  set  up  in  a  city  of  Macedon, 
called  Dia  ;  whence,  they  were  many  years  afterwards  carried  to 
Rome,  by  Metellus.  About  sixty  of  the  other  cavalry  were  kill- 
ed, and  nearly  thirty  foot ;  who,  the  next  day,  were  all  laid  with 
their  arms  and  equipage  in  one  grave  ;  and  the  king  granted  an 
exemption  to  their  fathers  and  children,  from  every  kind  of  tri- 
bute and  service. 

He  also  took  the  utmost  care  of  the  wounded,  visited  them,  and 
law  their  wounds  dressed.  He  inquired  very  particularly  into 
their  adventures,  and  permitted  every  one  of  them  to  relate  his 
actions  in  the  battle,  and  boast  his  bravery.  He  also  granted  the 
rights  of  sepulchre  to  the  principal  Persians,  and  did  not  even 
refuse  it  to  such  Greeks  as  died  in  the  Persian  service  ;  but  all 
those  whom  he  took  prisoners,  he  laid  in  chains,  and  sent  to 
work,  as  slaves,  in  Macedonia,  for  having  fought  under  the  bar- 
barian standard  against  their  country,  contrary  to  the  express 
prohibition  declared  by  Greece. 

Alexander  made  it  his  duty  and  pleasure  to  sh^re  the  honour 
of  the  victory  with  the  Greeks  ;  and  sent  particularly  to  the  Athe- 
nians, three  hundred  shields,  being  part  of  the  plunder  taken 
from  the  enemy ;  and  caused  this  glorious  inscription  to  be  in- 
icnbed  on  the  rest  of  the  spoils  .  "  Alexander,  son  of  Philip^ 
with  the  Greeks^  {the  Lacedosmonians  excepted)  gained  these  spoils^ 


OF  GREECE. 


265 


from  the  barbarians  who  inhabit  Asia,'''*  The  greater  part  of 
the  gold  and  silver  plate,  the  purple  carpets,  and  other  furniture 
of  the  Persian  luxury,  he  sent  to  his  mother. 

This  victory  not  only  impressed  the  Persians  with  consterna- 
tion, but  served  to  excite  the  ardour  of  the  invading  army.  The 
Persians,  perceiving  that  they  were  not  able  to  overcome  the 
Greeks,  though  possessed  of  manifest  advantages,  supposed  that 
they  never  could  be  able  to  face  them,  upon  equal  terms;  and  thus, 
from  the  first  mischance,  they  gave  up  all  hopes  of  succeeding  by 
valour,  indeed,  in  all  invasions,  where  the  nations  invaded  have 
been  once  beaten,  with  great  advantages  of  place  on  their  side, 
such  as  defensive  rivers,  straits,  and  mountains,  they  soon  begin 
to  persuade  themselves,  that,  upon  equal  terms,  such  an  enemy 
must  be  irresistible. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Machiavel,  that  he  who  resolves  to  defend  a 
passage,  should  do  it  with  his  ablest  forces  ;  for  few  regions  of  any 
circuit  are  so  well  defended  by  nature,  that  armies  of  such  force 
as  may  be  thought  suflicient  to  conquer  them,  cannot  break  through 
the  natural  dilhculties  of  the  entrance.  One  passage  or  another 
is  commonly  left  unguarded;  and  some  place  weakly  defended,  will 
be  the  cause  of  a  fatal  triumph  to  the  invaders.  How  often  have 
the  Alps  been  surmounted  by  armies  breaking  into  Italy  ?  and, 
though  they  produced  dreadful  difficulties  and  dangers  among 
those  that  scaled  them,  yet  they  were  never  found  to  give  secu- 
rity to  those  that  lay  behind. 

It  was  therefore  politic  in  Alexander  to  pass  the  river  in  the 
face  of  the  enemy,  without  marching  higher,  to  seek  an  easier 
passage,  or  labouring  to  convey  his  men  over  it  by  some  safer 
method.  Having  beaten  the  enemy,  upon  their  own  terms,  he 
destroyed  their  reputation  no  less  than  their  strength,  leaving  the 
wretched  subjects  of  such  a  state,  no  hopes  of  succour  from  such 
unable  protectors. 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  Granicus,  he  recovered  Sardis  from  the 
enemy,  which  was  in  a  manner  the  bulwark  of  the  barbarian  em- 
pire, on  that  side  next  the  sea.  He  took  the  inhabitants  under  his 
protection,  received  their  nobles  with  the  utmost  condescension 
and  permitted  them  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws  and  maxims ; 
observing,  to  his  friends  around  him,  "  That  such  as  lay  the  foun- 
dations of  a  new  dominion,  should  always  endeavour  to  have  the 
fame  of  being  merciful." 

Four  days  afterwards,  he  arrived  at  Ephesus,  carrying  with 
him  those  who  had  been  banished  from  thence  for  being  his  ad 
herents,  and  restored  its  popular  form  of  government.     He  as- 
signed to  the  temple  of  Diana,  the  tributes  which  were  paid  to 
the  kings  of  Persia.    Before  he  left  Ephesus,  the  deputies  of  the 


266 


TH£  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


267 


cities  of  ThralUs  and  Magnesia,  waited  upon  him,  with  the  keya 
of  those  places. 

He  afterwards  marched  to  Miletus ;  which  city,  flattered  with 
the  hopes  of  a  sudden  and  powerful  support,  shut  their  gates 
against  him :  indeed,  the  Persian  fleet,  which  was  very  conside- 
rable, made  a  show  as  if  it  would  succour  that  city  ;  but,  after 
having  made  several  fruitless  attempts  to  engage  that  of  the  ene- 
my, it  was  forced  to  sail  away.  Memnon  had  shut  himself  up  in 
this  fortress,  with  a  gi-eat  number  of  his  soldiers  who  had  escaped 
from  the  battle,  and  was  determined  to  make  a  good  defence. 

Alexander,  who  would  not  lose  a  moment,  attacked  it,  and 
planted  scaling  ladders  on  all  sides.  The  scalade  was  carried  on 
with  great  vigour,  and  opposed  with  no  less  intrepidity,  though 
Alexander  sent  fresh  troops,  to  relieve  each  other  without  the 
least  intermission ;  and  this  lasted  several  days.  At  last,  finding 
his  soldiers  were  every  where  repulsed,  and  that  the  city  was 
provided  with  every  thing  for  a  long  siege,  he  planted  all  iiia 
machines  against  it,  made  a  great  number  of  breaches,  and^ 
whenever  these  were  attacked,  a  new  scalade  was  attempted. 
The  besieged,  after  sustaining  all  these  eflbrts  with  prodigious 
bravery,  capitulated,  to  prevent  being  taken  by  storm.  Alexan- 
der treated  the  Milesians  with  the  utmost  humanity,  but  sold  all 
the  foreigners  who  were  found  in  it.  , 

After  the  capture  of  Miletus,  he  marched  into  Caria,  in  order 
to  lay  siege  to  Halicarnassus.  This  city  was  of  prodigiously  diffi 
cult  access,  from  its  happy  situation,  and  had  been  strongly  forti 
fied.  Besides  Memnon,  the  ablest  as  well  as  the  most  valiant  oi 
all  Darius'  commanders,  had  got  into  it,  with  a  body  of  choice  sol- 
diers, with  a  dpsign  to  signalize  his  courage  and  fidelity  to  his 
sovereign.  He  accordingly  made  a  very  noble  defence,  in  which 
he  was  seconded  by  Ephialtes,  another  general  of  great  merit. 
Whatever  could  be  expected  from  the  most  intrepid  bravery, 
wid  the  most  consummate  knowledge  in  the  science  of  war,  was, 
on  this  occasion,  conspifuous,  on  both  sides. 

Memnon,  finding  it  impossible  for  him  to  hold  out  any  longer, 
was  forced  to  abandon  the  city.  As  the  sea  was  open  to  him,  aftei 
having  put  a  strong  garrison  into  (he  citadel,  which  was  well 
ptored  with  provisions,  he  took  with  him  the  surviving  inhabi- 
tants, with  all  their  riches,  and  conveyed  them  into  the  island  of 
Cos,  which  was  not  far  from  Halicarnassus.  Alexander  did  not 
think  proper  to  besiege  the  citadel,  it  being  of  little  importance, 
after  the  city  was  destroyed  ;  which  he  demolished,  vo  the  very 
foundations.  He  left  it,  after  having  encompassed  it  with  strong 
walls,  and  stationed  some  good  troops  in  the  country. 

Soon  after  this,  he  restored  Ada,  queen  of  Caria,  to  her  king 
dom>  of  which  she  had  sometime  before^  he^n  dispossessed  ;  and 


RS  a  testimony  of  the  deep  sense  she  had  of  the  favours  received 
from  Alexander,  she  sent  him,  every  day,  meats  dressed  in  the 
most  exquisite  manner,  and  the  most  excellent  cooks  of  every 
kind.  Alexander  answered  the  queen,  on  this  occasion,  "  That 
all  this  train  was  of  no  service  to  him  ;  for  that  he  was  possessed 
of  much  better  cooks,  whom  Leonidas,  his  governor  had  given 
him,  one  of  whom  prepared  him  a  good  dinner,  and  an  excellent 
supper ;  and  those  were.  Temperance  and  Exercise." 

Several  kings  of  Asia  Minor  submitted  voluntarily  to  Alexander. 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  was  one  of  those  who  afterwards  ad- 
hered to  this  prince,  and  followed  him  in  his  expeditions.  He  was 
son  to  Ariobarzanes,  governor  of  Phrygia,  and  king  of  Pontus  ;  of 
whom  mention  has  been  already  made.  He  is  computed  to  be  the 
sixteenth  king  from  Artabanus,  who  is  considered  as  the  founder 
of  that  kingdom ;  of  which,  he  had  been  put  in  possession  by  Da- 
rius, son  of  Hystaspes,  his  father.  The  famous  Mithridates,  who 
so  long  employed  the  Roman  armies,  was  one  of  his  successors. 

The  year  ensuing,  Alexander  began  the  campaign  very  early. 
He  had  debated  whether  it  would  be  proper  for  him  to  march  di- 
rectly against  Darius,  or  first  subdue  the  rest  of  the  maritime 
provinces.  The  latter  opinion  appeared  the  safest,  since  he 
thereby  would  not  be  molested  by  such  nations  as  he  should  leave 
behind  him.  This  progress  was  at  first  interrupted.  Near  Pha- 
salis,  a  city  situated  between  Lysia  and  Pamphylia,  is  a  defile, 
iilong  the  sea  shore,  which  is  always  dry  at  low  water,  so  that 
travellers  may  pass  it  at  that  time  ;  but,  when  the  sea  rises,  it  is 
all  covered.  As  it  was  now  winter,  Alexander,  whom  nothing 
could  daunt,  was  desirous  of  passing  it,  before  the  waters  fell. 
His  forces  were  therefore  obliged  to  march  a  whole  day  in  the 
water,  which  came  up  to  their  waist. 

Alexander,  after  having  settled  aflairs  in  Ciciha  and  Pamphylia, 
marched  his  army  to  Celaenae,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  watered  by  the 
river  Marsyas,  which  the  fictions  of  poets  have  made  so  famous. 
He  summoned  the  garrison  of  the  citadel,  whither  the  inhabitants 
had  retired,  to  surrender ;  but  these,  believing  it  impregnable, 
answered  haughtily,  that  they  would  first  die.  However,  findmg 
the  attack  carried  on  with  great  vigour,  they  desired  a  truce  of 
sixty  days;  at  the  expiration  of  which,  they  promised  to  open  their 
gates,  in  case  they  were  not  succoured  ;*^and  accordingly,  no  aid 
arriving,  they  surrendered  themselves  on  the  appointed  day. 

Thence,  he  marched  into  Phrygia,  the  ancient  dominion  of  the 
celebrated  king  Midas.  Having  taken  the  capital  city,  he  was  de 
sirous  of  seeing  the  famous  chariot,  to  which  the  Gordian  knot  was 
tied.  This  knot,  which  fastened  the  yoke  to  the  beam,  was  tied 
with  so  much  intricacy,  that  it  was  impossible  to  discover  where 
the  ends  began,  or  how  they  were  concealed.     According  to  an 


268 


THE  HiSTORT 


ancient  tradition  of  the  country,  an  oracle  had  foretold,  that  the 
man  who  could  untie  it,  should  possess  the  empire  of  Asia. 

Alexander  being  firmly  persuaded  that  the  oracle  was  meant  foi 
him,  after  many  fruitless  trials,  iostead  of  further  attempting  to  un 
tie  it  in  the  usual  manner,  drew  his  sword,  and  cut  it  m  pieces 
crying  out,  "  That  that  was  the  only  way  to  untie  it."    The  pries* 
hailed  the  omen,  and  declared  that  Alexander  had  fulfilled  the 

Darius,  who  now  began  to  be  more  alarmed  than  before,  used 
all  his  art  to  raise  an  army,  and  encourage  his  forces.  He  sent 
Memnon  into  Greece,  to  invade  Macedon,  in  order  to  make  a  di- 
version of  the  Grecian  forces  :  but  that  general  dying  upon  thia 
expedition,  Darius'  hopes  vanished  in  that  quarter,  and,  instead 
of  invading  the  enemy,  he  was  obliged  to  consult  as  to  the  pra 
tection  of  his-  empire  at  home. 

In  the  mean  time,  Alexander,  having  left  Gordiom,  marched  into 
Paphlagonia  and  Cappadocia  ;  which  he  subdued.     It  was  there 
he  heard  of  Memnon's  death  ;  the  news  of  which,  confirmed  hira 
in  his  resolution,  of  marching  immediately  into  the  provinces  of 
Upper  Asia.     AccordingW,  he  advanced,  by  hasty  marches,  into 
Cilicia,  and  arrived  in  the  country  called  Cyrus'  Camp.     From 
thence,  there  is  no  more  than  fifty  stadia  (two  leagues  and  a  hall 
each)  to  the  pass  of  Cilicia,  which  is  a  very  narrow  strait,  through 
which  travellers  are  obliged  to  go  from  Cappadocia,  to  Tarsus. 
The  officer  who  guarded  it  in  Darius'  name,  had  left  only  a  few 
tolfliers  in  it ;  and  those  fled,  the  instant  they  heard  of  the  enemy  9 
arrival.     Upon  this,  Alexander  entered  the  pass,  and,  after  view- 
inff  very  attentively  the  situation  of  the  place,  admired  his  own 
good  fortune,  and  confessed  he  might  have  been  very  easdy  stop- 
ped and  defeated  there,  merely  by  the  throwing  of  stones ;  lor 
Lfiides  that  this  pass  wns  so  narrow,  that  lour  men,  completely 
arned   could  scarcely  walk  abreast  in  it,  the  top  of  the  mountam 
hun*'  oVer  the  road,  which  was  not  only  strait,  but  broken,  id 
several  places,  by  the  fall  of  torrents  from  the  mountains. 

Alexander  marched  his  whole  army  to  the  c.ty  of  Tarsus  where 
he  arrived  the  instant  the  Persians  were  setting  fire  to  that  place 
to  prevent  his  plundering  the  great  riches  of  so  A^irishing  a  cty. 
But  he  rushed  in,  and  stopped  the  progress  ot  the  fire  ;  the  barba 
rians  bavin*-  fled,  the  moment  they  heard  of  his  arrival.        ^ 

Through'this  citv,  the  Cydnus  runs  ;  a  river  not  so  remarkable 
for  the  breadth  of^ts  channel,  as  for  the  beauty  of  Us  waters, 
wnich  are  extremely  limpid,  but,  at  the  same  time  excessively 
ToUl  becauL  of  the^ufted  treeswith  which  its  banks  are  over, 
ihadowed.  k  was  now  about  the  end  of  summer  which  is  exces 
gively  hot  in  Cilicia  ;  and,  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day,  when  the 
king,  who  was  quite  covered  with  sweat  and  dirt,  arriving  on  iti 


OF  GKEECE. 


26S 


banks,  had  a  niind  to  bathe,  invited  by  the  beauty  and  clearness  of 
the  stream.  However,  the  instant  he  pi  unged  into  it,  he  was  seized 
with  so  violent  a  shivering,  that  all  the  by-standers  conceived  he 
was  dying.  Upon  this,  he  was  carried  to  his  tent,  after  fainting 
away.  The  physicians,  who  were  sensible  that  they  should  be 
responsible  for  the  event,  did  not  dare  to  hazard  violent  and  ex* 
traordinary  remedies.  However,  Philip,  one  of  his  physicians, 
who  had  always  attended  him  from  his  youth,  and  loved  him  with 
the  utmost  tenderness,  not  only  as  his  sovereign  but  his  child,  rais- 
ing himself  ^merely  out  of  affection  to  Alexander)  above  all  pru- 
dential considerations,  offered  to  give  him  a  dose,  which,  though 
*  not  very  violent,  would,  nevertheless,  be  speedy  in  its  effects  ;  and 
desired  three  days  to  prepare  it.  At  this  proposal,  every  one 
trembled,  but  he  only  whom  it  most  concerned  :  Alexander  being 
afflicted  on  no  other  account,  than  because  it  would  keep  him 
three  days  from  appearing  at  the  head  of  his  army. 

Whilst  these  things  were  doing,  Alexander  received  a  letter 
from  Parmenio,  who  was  left  behind  in  Cappadocia,  in  whom  he 
placed  greater  confidence  than  in  any  other  of  his  courtiers  ;  the 
purport  of  which,  was,  to  bid  him  beware  of  Philip,  his  physician ; 
as  Darius  had  bribed  him,  by  the  promise  of  a  thousand  talents, 
and  his  sister  in  marriage.  This  letter  gave  him  great  uneasiness ; 
for  he  was  now  at  full  leisure  to  weigh  all  the  reasons  he  might 
have,  to  hope  or  fear.  But  the  confidence  in  a  physician,  whose 
sincere  attachment  and  fidelity  he  had  proved  from  his  infancy, 
soon  prevailed,  and  removed  all  suspicions.  He  folded  up  the 
letter,  and  put  it  under  his  bolster,  without  acquainting  his  attend- 
ants with  the  contents  .  in  the  mean  time,  his  physician  entered, 
with  the  medicine  in  his  hand,  and  offered  the  cup  to  Alexander 
The  hero,  upon  this,  took  the  cup  from  him,  and  holding  out  the 
letter,  desired  the  physician  to  read,  while  he  drank  off  the 
draught,  with  an  intrepid  countenance,  without  the  least  hesita- 
tion, or  discovering  the  least  suspicion  or  uneasiness. 

The  physician,  as  he  perused-the  letter,  showed  greater  signs  of 
indignation,  than  of  fear:  he  bid  him,  with  a  resolute  tone,  bar 
hour  no  uneasiness,  a.'  the  recovery  of  his  health  would,  in  a  short 
time,  wipe  off  all  suspicion.  In  the  mean  time,  the  physic  wrought 
so  violently,  that  the  symptoms  seemed  to  strengthen  Parmenio's 
accusation  ;  but,  at  last,  the  medicine  having  gained  the  ascendant, 
the  king  began  to  assume  his  accustomed  vigour ;  and,  in  about 
tnree  days,  he  was  able  to  show  himself  to  his  longing  soldiers,  by 
w  horn  he  was  equally  beloved  and  respected. 
-  In  the  mean  time,  Darius  was  on  his  march  ;  filled  with  a  vain 
security  in  a  superiority  of  his  numbers ;  and  confident,  not  m  the 
Vidour»  but  in  the  splendour  of  his  forces.  The  plains  of  Assy.ria, 
m  which  he  was  encamped,  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  extending 


«70 


TlIE  HISTORY 


his  horse  as  he  pleased,  and  of  taking  the  advantage  given  him  by 
the  great  difference  between  the  number  of  soldiers  m  each  army. 
But,  instead  of  this,  he  resolved  to  march  to  narrow  passes,  where 
his  cavalry,  and  the  multitude  of  his  troops,  so  far  from  doing  him 
any  service,  would  only  incumber  each  other ;  and  accordmgly  ad- 
vanced towards  the  enemy,  for  whom  he  should  have  waited  j 
and  thus  ran  visibly  on  his  destruction. 

His  courtiers  and  attendants,  however,  whose  custom  it  was  to 
flatter  and  applaud  all  his  actions,  congratulated  him  upon  an  ap- 
proaching  victory ,  as  if  it  had  been  certain  and  inevitable.    There 
was,  at  that  time,  in  the  army  of  Darius,  one  Caridemus,  an  Athe- 
nian, a  man  of  great  experience  in  war,  who  personally  hated 
Alexander,  for  having  caused  him  to  be  banished  from  Athens. 
Darius,  turning  to  this  Athenian,  asked,  whether  he  believed  him 
powerful  enough  to  defeat  his  army.    Caridemus,  who  had  been 
brought  up  in  the  bosom  of  liberty,  and,  forgetting  that  he  was  m 
a  country  of  slavery,  where  to  oppose  the  inclinations  of  the 
prince,  is  of  the  most  dangerous  consequence,  replied  as  follows  • 
«  Permit  me,  sir,  to  speak  truth  now,  when,  only,  my  sincerity 
may  be  of  service.     Your  present  splendour,  your  prodigious 
numbers  which  have  drained  the  east,  may  be  terrible,  indeed, 
to  your  effeminate  neighbours,  but  can  be  no  way  dreadful  to  a 
Macedonian  army.  Discipline,  close  combat,  courage,  is  all  their 
care  :  every  single  man  among  them  is  almost  himself  a  general. 
These  men  are  not  to  be  repulsed  by  the  stones  of  slingers,  or 
stakes  burnt  at  the  end  :  none  but  troops  armed  like  themselves, 
can  stop  their  career  ;  let  therefore  the  gold  and  silver  whicii 
glitters  in  your  camp,  be  exchanged  for  soldiers  and  steel,  for 
weapons  and  for  hearts  that  are  able  to  defend  you." 

Darius,  though  naturally  of  a  mild  disposition,  had  all  his  pas- 
sions roused  at  the  freedom  of  this  man's  advice.  He  ordered 
him  at  once  to  be  executed  ;  Caridemus  all  the  time  crying  out, 
that  his  avenger  was  at  hand.  Darius  too  soon  repented  his  rash 
ness,  and  experienced,  when  it  was  too  late,  the  truth  c(  all  thai 
had  been  told  him.  The  emperor  now  advanced  with  his  troops, 
towards  the  river  Euphrates :  over  his  tent,  was  exhibited,  to 
the  view  of  his  whole  army,  the  image  of  the  sun,  in  jewels ; 
while  wealth  and  magnificence  shone  in  every  quarter  of  the 

army.  ,i  j  . 

First,  they  carried  silver  altars,  pn  which  lay  fire,  called  by 
them  Sacred  and  Eternal:  and  these  were  followed  by  the  Magi, 
singing  hymns,  after  the  manner  of  their  country  :  they  were  ac- 
companied by  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  youths  (equalling  the 
number  of  days  in  a  year)  clothed  in  purple  robes.  Afterwards, 
came  a  chariot,  consecrated  to  Jupiter,  drawn  by  white  horses, 
and  followed  by  a  courser,  of  a  prodigious  size,  to  whom  they 


/ 


OF  GREECE. 


271 


gave  the  name  of  the  Sun'*s  Horse ;  and  the  equerries  were  dressed 
in  white,  each  having  a  golden  rod  in  his  hand. 

Ten  chariots,  adorned  with  sculptures  in  gold  and  silver,  fol- 
lowed after.  Then,  marched  a  body  of  horse,  composed  of  twelve 
nations  ;  whose  manners  and  customs  were  various,  and  all  armed 
in  a  different  manner.  Next,  advanced  those  whom  the  Persians 
called  The  Immortals;  amounting  to  ten  thousand,  who  surpassed 
the  rest  of  the  barbarians  in  the  sumptuousness  of  their  apparel. 
They  all  wore  golden  collars,  were  clothed  in  robes  of  gold 
tissue,  with  vestments,  the  sleeves  of  which  were  quite  covered 
with  precious  stones. 

Thirty  paces  from  them,  followed  those  called  the  king's  re- 
lations, to  the  number  of  fifteen  thousand,  in  habits  very  much 
resembling  those  of  women  j  and  more  remarkable  for  the  vain 
pomp  of  their  dress,  than  the  glitter  of  their  arms.  Those  called 
The  Doryphori  came  after ;  they  carried  the  king's  cloak,  and 
walked  before  his  chariot,  in  which  he  seemed  to  sit,  as  on  a  high 
throne.  This  chariot  was  enriched,  on  both  sides,  with  images 
of  the  gods,  in  gold  and  silver ;  and,  from  the  middle  of  the  yoke, 
which  was  covered  with  jewels,  rose  two  statues,  a  cubit  in  height, 
the  one  representing  War,  the  other  Peace,  having  a  golden  eagle 
between  them,  with  wings  extended,  as  ready  to  take  its  flight. 

But  nothing  could  equal  the  magnificence  of  the  king.  He  was 
clothed  in  a  vest  of  purple,  striped  with  silver,  and  over  it  a  long 
robe,  glittering  all  over  with  gold  and  precious  stones,  which  re- 
presented two  falcons,  rushing  from  the  clouds,  and  pecking  at  one 
another.  Around  his  waist,  he  wore  a  golden  girdle,  after  the 
manner  of  women,  whence  his  scimitar  hung,  the  scabbard  of 
which  flamed  all  over  with  gems  :  on  his  head,  he  wore  a  tiara^ 
or  mitre,  round  which  was  a  fillet  of  blue  mixed  with  white. 

On  each  side  of  him,  walked  two  hundred  of  his  nearest  rela- 
tions, followed  by  two  thousand  pikemen,  whose  pikes  were  adorn- 
ed with  silver,  and  tipped  with  gold  ;  and  lastly,  thirty  thousand 
infantry,  who  composed  the  rear-guard.  These  were  followed 
by  the  king's  horses,  four  hundred  in  number,  all  of  which  were 
led.  About  one  hundred,  or  a  hundred  and  twenty  paces  distant, 
came  Sysigambis,  Darius'  mother,  seated  on  a  chariot,  and  his 
consort  on  another ;  with  the  several  female  attendants  of  both 
queens,  riding  on  horseback. 

Afterwards,  came  fifteen  lai^e  chariots,  in  which  were  the 
king's  children,  and  those  who  had  the  care  of  their  education, 
with  a  band  of  eunuchs,  who  are  to  this  day  in  great  esteem 
among  those  nations.  Then,  marched  the  concubines,  to  thf 
number  of  three  hundred  and  sixty,  in  the  equipage  of  queens, 
followed  by  six  hundred  mules,  and  three  hundred  camels,  whicli 
:arried  the  king's  treasure,  and  were  guarded  by  a  great  body  of 


273 


THE  HISTORY 


archers.  After  these,  came  the  wives  of  the  crown  officers,  and 
of  the  greatest  lords  of  tlie  court ;  then,  the  sutlers,  and  servants 
of  the  armv,  seated  also  in  chariots.  . 

In  the  rear,  were  a  body  of  light  armed  troops,  witn  their  com- 
manders, who  closed  the  whole  march.  Such,  was  the  splendour 
of  this  pageant  monarch :  he  took  the  field  incumbered  with  an 
unnecessary  train  of  concubines,  attended  with  troops  of  various 
nations,  speaking  different  languages,  for  their  numbers  impossible 
to  be  marshalled,  and  so  rich  and  effeminate  in  gold  and  m  gar- 
ments, as  seemed  rather  to  invite,  than  deter  an  invader. 

Alexander,  after  marching  from  Tarsus,  arrived  at  Bactnana: 
from  thence,  still  earnest  in  coming  up  with  his  enemy,  he  came 
to  Solas,  where  he  offered  sacrifice  to  iEsculapius  ;  thence,  he 
went  forward  to  Pyramus,  to  Malles,  and  at  last  to  Castabala.  It 
was  here,  that  he  first  received  advice,  that  Darius,  with  his  whole 
army,  was  encamped  at  Sochus,  in  Assyria,  two  days'  journey 
from  Cilicia.  He  therefore  resolved,  without  delay,  to  meet  him 
there,  as  the  badness  of  the  weather  had  obliged  him  to  halt. 

In  the  mean  time,  Darius  led  on  his  immense  army  into  the 
plains  of  Assyria,  which  they  covered  to  a  great  extent :  there,  he 
was  advised,  by  the  Grecian  commanders  who  were  in  his  service, 
and  who  composed  the  strength  of  his  army,  to  halt,  as  he  would, 
in  that  place,  have  sufficient  room  to  expand  his  forces,  and  sur- 
round  the  invader.  Darius  rejected  their  advice  ;  and,  instead  of 
waiting  Alexander's  approach,  vainly  puffed  up  with  pnde  by  his 
surrounding  courtiers,  he  resolved  to  pursue  the  invader,  who 
wished  for  nothing  more  ardently,  than  to  engage. 

Accordingly,  Darius  having  sent  his  treasures  to  Damascus,  a 
city  of  Assyria,  marched,  with  the  main  body  of  his  army,  ic- 
wards  Cilicia,  then  turned  short  towards  Issus  ;  and,  quite  igno- 
rant  of  the  situation  of  the  enemy,  supposed  he  was  pursuing  Alex 
ander,  when  he  had  actually  left  him  in  the  rear.  There  is  a 
stran<re  mixture  of  pride,  cruelty,  splendour,  and  magnanimity, 
in  alAhe  actions  of  this  Persian  prince.  At  Issus,  he  barbarous- 
ly put  to  death  all  the  Greeks  who  were  sick  in  that  city,  a  few 
soldiers  only  excepted,  whom  he  dismissed,  after  having  made 
them  view  every  part  of  his  camp,  in  order  to  report  his  num- 
bers  and  strength  to  the  invader :  these  soldiers,  accordingly, 
brought  Alexander  word  of  the  approach  of  Darius,  and  he  now 
began  to  think  seriously  of  preparing  for  battle. 

Alexander,  fearing,  from  the  numbers  of  the  enemy,  that  they 
would  attack  him  in  his  camp,  fortified  it,  with  a  ditch  and  a  ram- 
part; but,  at  the  same  time,  discovered  great  joy  at  seeing  the  ene- 
my hasten  totheirowndestruction,  and  prepare  to  attack  him,  m  a 
place  which  was  wide  enough  only  for  a  small  army  to  act.  Thus, 
Ihe  two  arm'^s  were,  in  some  measure,  reduced  to  an  equality  : 


OF  GREECE. 


273 


the  Macedonians  had  space  sufficient  to  employ  their  whole  force^ 
while  the  Persians  had  not  room  for  the  twentieth  part  of  theirs. 

Nevertheless,  Alexander,  as  it  frequently  happens  to  the  great- 
est captains,  felt  some  emotion,  when  he  saw  that  he  was  going 
to  hazard  all  at  one  blow.  The  more,  fortune  had  favoured  him, 
hitherto,  the  more  he  now  dreaded  her  frowns  :  the  moment  ap- 
proaching, which  was  to  determine  his  fate.  But,  on  the  other 
side,  his  courage  revived,  from  the  reflection,  that  the  rewards  of 
his  toils  exceeded  the  dangers ;  and,  though  he  was  uncertain 
with  regard  to  the  victory,  he  at  least  hoped  to  die  gloriously,  and 
like  Alexander.  However,  he  did  not  disclose  these  thoughts  to 
any  one  •  well  knowing,  that,  upon  the  approach  of  a  battle,  a 
general  ought  not  to  discover  the  least  marks  of  sadness  or  per- 
plexity ;  and  that  the  troops  should  read  nothing  but  resolution 
and  intrepidity  in  the  countenance  of  their  commander. 

Having  made  his  soldiers  refresh  themselves,  and  ordered 
them  to  be  ready  for  the  third  watch  of  the  night,  which  began 
at  twelve,  he  went  to  the  top  of  a  mountain,  and  there,  by  torch- 
light, sacrificed,  after  the  manner  of  his  country,  to  the  gods  of 
the  place.  As  soon  as  the  signal  was  given,  his  army,  which  was 
ready  to  march  and  fight,  being  commanded  to  make  great  speed, 
arrived,  by  day-break,  at  the  several  posts  assigned  them. 

But  now,  the  spies  bringing  word  that  Darius  was  not  above 
thirty  furlongs  from  them,  the  king  caused  his  army  to  halt,  and 
then  drew  it  up  in  battle  array.  The  peasants,  in  the  greatest 
terror,  came  also,  and  acquainted  Darius  with  the  arrival  of  the 
enemy  ;  which  he  would  not,  at  first,  believe,  imagining,  as  we 
have  observed,  that  Alexander  fled  before  him,  and  was  endeav- 
ouring to  escape.  This  news  threw  his  troops  into  the  utmost 
confusion ;  who,  in  their  surprise,  ran  to  their  arms,  with  great 
precipitation  and  disorder. 

The  spot  where  the  battle  was  fought,  lay  near  the  city  of 
Issus,  which  the  mountains  bounded  on  one  side,  and  the  sea  on 
the  other.  The  plain,  situated  between  them  both,  must  have 
been  considerably  broad,  as  the  two  armies  encamped  in  it,  and 
I  have  before  observed,  that  Darius'  army  was  vastly  numerous. 
The  river  Pinarius  ran  through  the  middle  of  this  plain,  from 
the  mountain  to  the  sea,  and  divided  it  very  nearly  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  mountain  formed  a  kind  of  gulf,  the  extremity  of 
which,  in  a  curved  line,  bounded  part  of  the  plain. 

Alexander  drew  up  his  army  in  the  following  order.  He  post- 
ed, at  the  extremity  of  the  right  wing,  which  stood  neai  the 
mountains,  the  Argyraspides,  commanded  by  Nicanor  ;  then,  the 
phalanx  of  CcEnus,  and  afterwards  that  of  Perdiccas,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  centre  of  the  main  army.  On  the  extremity  of  the 
left  Wing,  he  posted  the  phalanx  of  Amyntas,  then  that  of  Ptolemy 


274 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


5^75 


and  lastly  that  of  Meleager.  Thus,  the  famous  MacedoDian  pha 
lanir  was  formed,  which  we  find  was  composed  of  six  distinct 
bodies.    Each  of  those  was  headed  by  able  generals  ;  but  Alex- 
ander»  being  always  generalissimo,  had  consequently  the  com- 
mand of  the  whole  army. 

The  horse  were  placed  on  the  two  wings  ;  the  Macedonians 
with  the  Thessalians  on  the  right,  and  the  Peloponnesians,  with 
the  other  allies,  on  the  lef^.  Craterus  commanded  all  the  foot, 
which  composed  the  left  wing,  and  Parmenio  the  whole  wing. 
Alexander  had  reserved  to  himself  the  command  of  the  right 
He  had  desired  Parmenio  to  keep  as  near  the  sea  as  possible,  to 
prevent  the  barbarians  from  surrounding  him  ;  and  Nicanor,  on 
the  contrary,  was  ordered  to  keep  at  some  distance  from  the 
mountains,  to  be  oat  of  the  reach  of  the  arrows,  discharged  by 
those  who  were  posted  on  them.  He  covered  the  horse,  on  his 
right  wing,  with  the  light  horse  of  Protomachus  and  the  Paeonians  ; 
and  his  foot,  with  the  bowmen  of  Antiochus.  He  reserved  the 
Agrians,  commanded  by  Attains,  who  were  greatly  esteemed, 
and  some  forces  newly  arrived  from  Greece,  to  oppose  those 
Darius  had  posted  on  the  mountains. 

As  for  Darius'  army,  it  was  drawn  up  in  the  following  order  : 
having  heard  that  Alexander  was  marching  towards  him  in  battle 
array,  he  commanded  thirty  thousand  horse,  and  twenty  thousand 
bowmen  to  cross  the  river  Pinarius,  tHat  he  might  have  an  op- 
portunity to  draw  up  his  army  in  a  commodious  manner  on  the 
hither  side.  In  the  centre,  he  posted  the  thirty  thousand  Greeks 
in  his  service,  who  doubtless  were  the  flower  and  chief  strength 
of  his  army,  and  were  not  at  all  inferior,  in  bravery,  to  the  Ma 
cedoniao  phalanx  ;  with  thirty  thousand  barbarians  on  their  right, 
and  as  many  on  their  left. 

The  fiehl  of  battle  not  being  able  to  contain  a  greater  number, 
these  were  all  heavily  armed.  The  rest  of  the  infantry,  distin- 
jfuishod  by  their  several  nations,  were  ranged  behind  the  first  line. 
It  is  a  pity  that  Arriandoes  not  tell  us  the  depth  of  each  of  those 
two  lines  ;  but  it  must  have  been  prodigious,  if  we  consider  the  ex 
tremc  narrowness  of  the  pass,  and  the  amazing  multitude  of  the 
Persian  forces.  On  the  mountain,  which  lay  to  their  left,  against 
Alexander's  right  wing,  Darius  posted  twenty  thousand  men ; 
who  were  so  ranged  (in  the  several  windings  of  the  mountain) 
that  some  were  behind  Alexander's  army,  and  others  before  it. 

Danbs,  after  having  set  his  army  in  battle  array,  made  his 
horse  again  cross  the  river,  and  despatched  the  greater  part  of 
them  towards  the  sea,  against  Parmenio  ;  because  they  could  fight 
on  that  spot  to  the  greatest  advantage.  The  rest  of  his  cavalry, 
he  sent  to  the  left,  towards  the  mountain.  However,  finding  that 
these  would  bo  of  no  service  on  that  side,  because  of  the  too 


1 


great  narrowness  of  the  spot,  he  caused  a  great  part  of  them  to 
wheel  about  to  the  right.  As  for  himself,  he  took  his  post  in 
the  centre  of  his  army,  pursuant  to  the  custom  of  the  Persia- 
monarchs. 

The  two  armies  being  thus  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle,  Alex 
ander  marched  very  slowly,  that  his  soldiers  might  take  a  littU 
breath  ;  so  that  it  was  supposed  they  would  not  engage  till  very 
late.     Darius  still  continued  with  his  army  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river,  in  order  not  to  lose  the  advantageous  situation  of 
his  post ;  and  even  caused  such  parts  of  the  shore  as  were  not 
craggy,  to  be  secured  with  palisades ;   where  the  Macedonians 
concluded  that  he  was  already  afraid  of  being  defeated.     The 
two  armies  being  now  in  sight,  Alexander,  riding  along  the  ranks 
called  by  their  several  names,  the  principal  oflicers,  both  of  the 
Macedonians  and  foreigners  ;  and  exhorted  the  soldiers  to  sig. 
nalise  themselves  ;  speaking  to  each  nation  according  to  its  pe- 
culiar genius  and  disposition.     The  whole  army  set  up  a  shout 
and  eagerly  desired  to  be  led  on  directly  against  the  enemy. 

Alexander  had  advanced,  at  first,  very  slowly,  to  prevent  the 
ranks  in  the  front  of  his  phalanx  from  breaking,  and  halted  at  in- 
tervals.  But  when  he  had  approached  within  bow  shot,  he  com- 
manded all  his  right  vving  to  plunge  impetuously  into  the  river, 
that  he  might  surprise  the  barbarians,  come  sooner  to  a  close 
engagement,  and  be  less  exposed  to  the  enemy's  arrows  ;  in  all 
which,  he  was  very  successful.  Both  sides  fought  with  the  ut- 
most bravery  and  resolution  ;  and  being  now  forced  to  fight  close, 
they  charged  sword  in  hand,  when  a  dreadful  slaughter  ensued  * 
for  they  engaged  man  to  man,  each  aiming  the  point  of  his  sworu 
at  the  face  of  his  opponent. 

Alexander,  who  performed  the  duty  both  of  a  private  soKIier 
and  a  commander,  wished  nothing  so  ardently  as  the  glory  of  kill- 
ing, with  his  own  hands,  Darius  ;  who,  being  seated  on  a  high 
chariot,  was  conspicuous  to  the  whole  army  ;  and,  by  that  means, 
tiras  a  powerful  object,  both  to  encourage  his  own  soldiers  to  de- 
fend, and  the  enemy  to  attack  him.  The  battle  grew  more  furi- 
ous and  bloody  than  before,  so  that  a  great  number  of  Persian 
noblemen  were  killed.  Each  side  fought  with  incredible  brave- 
ry. Oxatres,  brother  of  Darius,  observing  that  Alexander  wa? 
«;oing  to  charge  that  monarch  with  the  utmost  vigour,  rushed  be 
fore  his  chariot,  with  the  horse  under  hid  command,  and  dis 
(inguished  himself  above  the  rest. 

The  horses  that  drew  Darius'  chariot,  lost  all  command,  and 
shook  the  yoke  so  violently,  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  over- 
turning the  king  ;  who,  seeing  himself  going  to  fall  alive  into  th« 
hands  of  his  enemies,  leaped  down,  and  mounted  another  chariot 
The  rest,  observing  thi«   threw  down  their  arms,  and  fled. 

A3 


876 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


217 


Alexander  had  received  a  slight  wound  in  his  thigh,  hut  happily 
•t  was  not  attended  with  ill  consequences. 

Whilst  part  of  the  Macedonian  infantry,  posted  on  the  right, 
were  driving  the  advantages  they  had  gained  over  the  Persians, 
the  remainder  who  engaged  the  Greeks,  met  wiith  greater  re- 
sistance. These  observing  that  thnt  body  of  infantry  was  no 
longer  covered  by  the  right  wing  of  Alexander's  army,  which 
was  pursuing  the  enemy,  came  and  attacked  it  in  flank.  The  en- 
gagement was  very  bloody,  and  victory  a  long  time  doubtful.  The 
Greeks  endeavoured  to  push  the  Macedonians  into  the  river,  and 
to  recover  the  disorder  into  which  the  lell  wins;  had  been  thrown 
The  Macedonians  also  signalised  themselves  with  the  utmost 
bravery,  in  order  to  preserve  the  advantage  which  Alexander 
had  just  before  gained,  and  support  the  honour  of  their  phalanx, 
which  had  always  been  considered  as  invincible. 

There  was  also  a  perpetual  jealousy  between  the  Greeks  and 
Macedonians,  which  greatly  increased  their  courage,  and  made 
the  resistance,  on  each  side,  very  vigorous.  On  Alexander's  sidcr, 
Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Seleucus,  lost  his  life,  with  a  hundred  and 
twenty  more  considerable  officers,  who  all  had  behaved  with  the 
utmost  gallantry.  In  the  mean  time,  the  right  wing,  which  was 
victorious  under  its  monarch,  after  defeating  all  who  opposed  it, 
wheeled  to  the  left,  against  those  Greeks  who  were  fighting  agninst 
the  rest  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  whom  they  charged  very 
vigorously  ;  and,  attacking  them  in  flank,  entirely  routed  them. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  engagement,  the  Persian  cavahy 
in  the  right  wing  (without  waiting  for  their  being  attacked  by  the 
Macedonians)  had  crossed  the  river,  and  rushed  upon  the  Thes- 
salian  horse  ;  several  of  whose  squadrons  they  broke.  Upon  this, 
the  remainder  of  the  latter,  in  order  to  avoid  the  impetuosity  of  the 
first  charge,  and  oblige  the  Persians  to  break  their  ranks,  made  a 
feint  of  retiring,  as  if  terrified  b^  the  pro'ligious  numbers  of 
the  enemy. 

The  Persians,  seeing  this,  were  filled  with  boldness  and  confi- 
dence ;  abd  thereupon  the  greater  part  of  them  advancing,  without 
order  or  precaution,  as  to  a  certain  victory,  had  no  thoughts  but 
of  pursuing  the  enemy.  Upon  this,  the  Thessalians,  seeing  them 
in  such  confusion,  sudlenly  faced  about,  and  renewed  tlie  fight, 
with  fresh  ardour.  The  Persians  made  a  brave  defence,  till  they 
saw  Darius  put  to  flight,  and  the  Greeks  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
phalanx,  when  tney  fled,  in  the  utmost  disorder. 

With  regard  to  Darius,  the  instant  he  saw  his  left  wing  broken, 
he  was  one  of  the  first  that  fled,  in  his  chariot ;  but,  getting  after- 
wards into  cra^y,  rugged  places,  he  mounted  on  horseback, 
throwing  down  his  bow,  shield,  and  royal  mantle.  Alexander, 
however,  did  not  attempt  to  pursue  him,  till  he  saw  his  phalani 


had  conquered  the  Greeks,  and  the  Persian  horse  put  to  flight 
which  was  of  great  advantage  to  the  prince  that  fled.  * 

Sysigambis,  Darius'  mother,  and  that  monarch's  queen,  who 
was  also  his  sister,  were  found  remaining  in  the  camp,  with  two 
of  the  king's  daughters,  his  son  (yet  a  child)  and  some  Persian 
ladies  :  the  rest  had  been  carried  to  Damascus,  with  part  of  Da- 
rius' treasures,  and  all  such  things  as  contributed  only  to  the  luxu- 
ry and  magnificence  of  his  court.  No  more  than  three  thousand 
talente  were  found  in  his  camp  ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  trea- 
sure  fell  afterwards  into  the  hands  of  Parmenio,  at  the  taking  of 
the  city  of  Damascus. 

As  for  the  barbarians,  having  exerted  themselves  with  sufficient 
bravery  in  the  first  attack,  they  afterwards  gave  way,  in  the  most 
shameful  manner  ;  and,  being  intent  upon  nothing  but  saving  them- 
selves, they  took  diff"erent  routes  Some  struck  into  the  high 
road  which  led  directly  to  Persia ;  others  ran  into  woods  and 
lonely  mountains  ;  and  a  small  number  returned  to  their  camp, 
which  the  victorious  enemy  had  already  taken  and  plundered.  In 
this  battle,  sixty  thousand  of  the  Persian  infantry,  and  ten  thou- 
sand  horsemen  were  slain,  and  forty  thousand  were  taken  prison- 
er ;  while  of  Alexander's  army,  there  fell  but  two  hundred  and 
fourscore  men  in  all. 

The  evening  after  the  engagement,  Alexander  invited  his  chief 
oflicers  to  a  feiist ;  at  which,  he  himself  presided,  notwithstanding^ 
he  had  been  wounded  that  day  in  battle.  The  festivity,  however") 
had  scarcely  begun,  when  they  were  interrupted  by  sad  lamenta' 
tions  from  a  neighbouring  tent,  which,  at  first,  they  considered  as 
a  tresh  alarm  ;  but  they  were  soon  taught  that  it  came  from  the 
tent,  in  which  the  wife  and  mother  of  Darius,  were  kept ;  who 
were  expressing  their  sorrow  for  the  s-ipposed  death  of  Darius 
A  eunuch,  who  had  seen  his  cloak  in  the  hands  of  a  soldier, 
imagining  he  was  killed,  brought  them  these  dreadful  tidings. 

Alexander,  however,  sent  one  of  his  officers  to  undeceive  them, 
and  to  inform  them  that  the  emperor  was  still  alive.  The  women, 
httle  used  to  the  appearance  of  strangers,  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
Macedonian  soldier,  imagining  he  was  sent  to  put  them  to  death, 
threw  themselves  at  his  feet,  and  intreated  him  to  spare  them  a  lit- 
tle while.  They  were  ready,  they  said,  to  die  ;  and  only  desired 
to  bury  Darius,  before  they  should  sufler.  The  soldier  assured 
them,  that  the  monarch  whom  they  deplored,  was  still  hving,  and 
he  gave  Sysigambis  his  hand,  to  raise  her  from  the  ground. 

The  next  day,  Alexander,  after  visiting  the  wounded,  caused 
the  last  honours  to  be  paid  to  the  dead,  in  presence  of  the  whole, 
army,  drawn  up  in  the  most  splendid  order  of  battle.  He  treated 
the  Persians  of  distinction  in  the  same  manner,  and  permitted 
Darius'  mother  to  bury  whatever  person  she  pleased,  accordir^ 


«78 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE 


279 


W 


to  the  customs  and  ceremonies  practised  in  her  country.  Adet 
this,  he  sent  a  message  to  the  queens,  to  inform  them,  that  he  vva3 
eoincr  to  pay  them  a  visit ;  and  accordingly,  commanding  all  his 
train  to  withdraw,  he  entered  the  tent,  accompanied  only  hy 
Hephaestion  ;  who  made  so  cautious  and  discreet  a  use  of  the 
liberty  granted  him,  that  he  seemed  to  take  it  not  so  much  out  of 
inclmation,  as  from  a  desire  to  obey  the  king. 

They  were  of  the  same  age,  but  Hephgestion  was  taller,  ^c 
that  the  queens  took  him  rii-st  for  the  king,  and  paid  him  then 
respects  as  such.  But  some  captive  eunuchs  showing  them  Alex- 
Rnder.  Sy^isambis  fell  prostrate  before  him,  and  intreated  pardon 
for  her  mistake  ;  but  the  king,  raising  her  from  the  ground,  as- 
sured  her  this  his  friend  was  another  Alexander  ;  and  after  com- 
fortino-  her  and  her  attendants,  took  the  son  of  Darius,  that  was  yet 
only  a  child,  in  ns  arms  The  infant,  without  dit^covenng  the 
least  terror,  stretched  out  his  arms  to  the  conqueror  ;  who,  being 
affected  with  its  confidence,  said  to  Hephaestion  "  O  that  Darius 
had  some  share,  some  portion  of  this  infant's  generosity." 

This  interview  has  done  more  honour  to  Alexander's  character, 
than  all  his  conquests  :  the  gentleness  of  his  manners  to  the  sup- 
pliant captives  •  his  chastity  and  continence,  when  he  had  the 
power  to  enforce  obedience  ;  were  setting  an  example  to  heroes, 
which  it  has  been  the  pride  of  many,  since,  to  imitate. 

After  this  overthrow,  all  Phoenicia,  the  capital  city  of  1  yre. 
onlv,  excepted,  was  yielded  to  the  conqueror,  and  Parmeno  wag 
made  governor.  Good  fortune  followed  him  so  fast,  that  it  reward- 
ed him  beyond  his  expectations.  Antiogenes,  his  general  in  A^ia, 
overthrew  the  Cappadocians,  Paphlagonians,  and  others  lately  re- 
volted. Aristodemus,  the  Persian  admiral,  was  overcome  at  sea, 
and  a  great  part  of  his  fleet  taken.  The  city  of  Damascus,  also,  in 
which  the  treasures  of  Darius  were  deposited,  was  surrendered  to 
Alexander.  The  governor  of  this  place,  lorgetting  the  duty  he 
owed  his  sovereign,  informed  Alexander,  by  letter,  that  he  would 
on  a  certain  day,  lead  out  his  soldiers,  laden  with  spoil,  from  the 
city,  asifwillingtosecurearetreat;andthese,  with  all  theirweallh, 

might  be  taken  with  a  proper  body  of  troops  to  intercept  them. 

Alexander  punctuallv  followed  the  governoi's  instruction,  and 
thus  became  possessed' of  an  immense  plunder.  Besides  money 
and  plate,  which  was  afterwards  coined,  and  amounted  to  immense 
sums,  thirty  thousand  men,  and  seven  thousand  beasts  laden  with 
baggage,  were  taken.  We  find,  by  Parmcnio's  letter  to  Alexander 
that^he  found  in  Damascus,  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  of  Da 
rius'  concubines,  all  admirably  well  skilled  in  music  ;  and  also  a 
multitude  of  officers,  whose  business  it  was  to  regulate  and  pre- 
pare every  thin?  relating  to  that  monarch's  entertainments. 

In  the  mean  time,  Darius  having  travelled  on  horseback,  i\va 


whole  night,  struck  with  terror  and  consternation,  arrived,  in  the 
morning,  at  Sochus  ;  where  he  assembled  the  remains  of  his  army. 
Still,  however,  his  pride  did  not  forsake  him,  with  his  fortune  :  he 
wrote  a  letter  to  Alexander,  in  which  he  rather  treated  him  as  an 
inferior  ;  he  commanded,  rather  than  requested,  that  Alexander 
would  take  a  ransom  for  his  mother,  wife,  and  children.  With  re- 
gard to  the  empire,  he  would  fight  with  him  for  it  upon  equal 
terms  ;  and  bring  an  equal  number  of  troops  into  the  field. 

To  this,  Alexander  replied,  That  he  disdained  all  corres- 
pondence  with  a  man  whom  he  had  already  overcome ;  that,  in 
case  he  appeared  before  him  in  a  suppHcating  posture,  he  would 
give  up  his  wife  and  mother,  without  ransom  ;  that  he  knew  how 
to  conquer,  and  oblige  the  conquered.  This  coming  to  no  issue, 
the  king  marched  thence  into  Phoenicia  ;  the  city  of  Byblos  open- 
ing its  gates  to  him.  Every  one  submitted,  as  he  advanced,  but  no 
people  did  this  with  greater  pleasure,  than  the  Sidonians.  We 
have  seen  in  what  manner  Ochus  had  destroyed  their  city,  eigh- 
teen years  before,  and  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword. 

After  he  had  returned  into  Persia,  such  of  the  citizens,  as,  on 
account  of  their  traffic,  or  for  some  other  cause,  had  been  absent, 
and,  by  that  means,  had  escaped  the  massacre,  returned  thither, 
ind  rebuilt  their  city.  But  they  had  retained  so  violent  a  hatred 
to  the  Persians,  that  they  were  overjoyed  at  this  opportunity  of 
throwing  off  their  yoke  ;  and,  indeed,  they  were  the  first  in  that 
country  who  submitted  to  the  king  by  their  deputies,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Strato,  their  king,  who  had  declared  in  favour  of  Darius. 
Alexander  dethroned  him,  and  permitted  Hephaestion  to  elect, 
in  his  stead,  whomsoever  of  the  Sidonians  he  should  judge  worthy 
of  so  exalted  a  station. 

This  favourite  was  quartered  at  the  house  of  two  brothers 
who  were  young,  and  of  the  most  considerable  family  in  the  city  : 
to  these,  he  offered  the  crown.  But  they  refused  it ;  telling  him, 
that,  according  to  the  laws  of  their  country,  no  person  could  as- 
cend the  throne,  unless  he  were  of  the  blood  royal.  Hepha;stion, 
admiring  this  greatness  of  soul,  which  could  contemn  what  others 
strove  to  obtain  by  fire  and  sword  ;  "  Continue,"  says  he  to  them 
**  in  this  way  of  thinking,  you  who  before  were  sensible  that  it  is 
much  more  glorious  to  refuse  a  diadem,  than  to  accept  it.  How- 
ever, name  ine  some  person  of  the  royal  family,  who  may  re 
member  when  he  is  king,  that  it  was  you  who  set  the  crown 
upon  his  head." 

The  brothers, observing,  that  several,  through  excessive  am- 
bition, aspired  to  this  high  station,  and,  to  obtain  it,  paid  a  ser- 
vile court  to  Alexanders  /*avourites,  declared,  that  they  did  no» 
know  any  person  more  worthy  of  the  diadem,  than  one  AMo- 
lonymusy  descended,  though  at  a  great  distance,  iirom  the  royai 


AaS 


2S0 


TJIE  HlbTOKY 


line  ;  but  who,  at  the  same  time,  was  so  poor,  that  he  was  obliged 
to  get  his  bread  by  day  labour,  in  a  garden  without  the  city.  Hif 
honesty  and  integrity  had  reduced  him,  as  well  as  many  more, 
to  such  extreme  poverty.  Solely  intent  upon  his  labour,  he  did 
not  hear  the  clashing  of  the  arms,  which  h!ul  shaken  all  Asia. 

Immediately,  the  two  brothers  went  in  search  of  Abdolonymus. 
with  the  royal  garments ;  and  found  him  weeding  in  his  garden 
When  they  saluted  him  king,  Abdolonymus  looked  upon  the 
whole  as  a  dream  ;  and,  unable  to  guess  the  meaning  of  it,  asked 
them  if  they  were  not  ashamed  to  ridicule  him  in  that  manner  t 
But,  as  he  made  a  greater  resistance  than  suited  their  inclinations, 
they  themselves  washed  him,  and  threw  over  his  shoulders  a 
purple  robe,  richly  embroidered  with  gold  ;  then,  after  repeated 
oaths  of  their  being  in  earnest,  they  conducted  him  to  the  palace 

The  news  of  this  was  immediately  spread  over  the  whole  city 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  were  overjoyed,  but  some  murmured, 
especially  the  rich  ;  who,  despising  Abdolonymus'  former  abjecj 
state,  could  not  forbear  showing  their  resentment,  on  that  ac- 
count, in  the  king's  court.  Alexander  commanded  the  newly  elected 
prince  to  be  sent  for;  and,  after  surveying  him  attentively,  a 
long  time,  he  spoke  thus  :  **  Thy  air  and  mien  do  not  contradict 
what  is  related  of  thy  extraction  ;  but  1  should  be  glad  to  kno* f 
with  what  frame  of  mind  thou  didst  bear  thy  poverty  ?"  **  Would 
to  the  gods  (replied  he)  that  I  may  bear  this  crown  with  equal 
patience.  These  hands  have  procured  me  all  1  desired :  and, 
whilst  1  possessed  nothing,  1  wanted  nothing."  This  answer  gave 
Alexander  a  high  idea  of  Abdolonymus'  virtue  :  he  presented 
bin),  not  only  with  the  rich  furniture  which  had  belonged  to 
Strato,  and  part  of  the  Persian  plunder,  but  likewise  annexed 
onp  of  the  neighbouring  provinces  to  his  dominions. 

Syria  and  Phajnicia  were  already  subdued  by  the  Macedonians, 
the  city  of  Tyre  excepted.  This  city  was  justly  entitled  the 
Queen  of  the  Sea ;  that  element  bringing  to  it  the  tribute  of  all 
nations.  She  boasted  her  having  first  invented  navigation,  and 
taught  mankind  the  art  of  braving  the  winds  and  waves  by  the 
assistance  of  a  frail  bark.  The  happy  situation  of  Tyre,  the  con- 
vcniency  and  extent  of  its  ports,  the  character  of  its  inhabitants, 
vho  were  industrious,  laborious,  patient,  and  extremely  cour- 
teous to  strangers  ;  invited  thither  merchants  from  all  parts  ol 
the  globe  ;  so  that  it  might  be  considered,  not  so  much  a  city 
belonging  to  any  particular  nation,  as  the  common  city  of  all  na- 
tions, and  the  centre  of  their  commerce. 

Alexander  thought  it  necessary,  both  for  his  pride  and  his  in- 
terest, to  take  this  city  The  spring  was  now  approaching.  Tyre 
was,  at  that  time,  seated  in  an  island  of  the  sea,  about  a  quarter 
of  a  league  from  the  continent.     It  was  surrounded  by  a  strong 


OF  GREECE. 


231 


wall,  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  which  the  waves  of  the  sea 
washed  ;  and  the  Carthaginians,  (a  colony  from  Tyre)  a  mighty 
people,  and  sovereigns  of  the  ocean,  whose  ambassadors  were 
at  that  time  in  the  city,  offering  to  Hercules,  according  to  ancient 
custom,  an  annual  sacrifice,  had  engaged  themselves  to  succour 
the  Tyrians. 

It  was  this,  which  made  them  so  haughty  :  firmly  determined 
not  to  surrender,  they  fix  machines  on  the  ramparts  and  on  the 
towers,  arm  their  young  men,  and  build  workhouses  for  the  arti- 
ficers, of  whom  there  were  great  numbers  in  the  city  ;  so  that 
every  part  resounded  with  the  noise  of  warlike  preparations. 
They  likewise  cast  iron  grapples,  to  throw  on  the  enemy's  works, 
and  tear  them  away ;  also  cramp  irons,  and  such  instruments, 
formed  for  the  defence  of  cities. 

So  many  difficulties  opposing  such  a  hazardous  design,  and  sa 
many  reasons  should  have  made  Alexander  decline  the  siege. 

It  was  impossible  to  come  near  this  city,  in  order  to  storm  it, 
without  making  a  bank,  which  would  reach  from  the  continent  to 
the  island  ;  and  an  attempt  of  this  kind  would  be  attended  with  dith- 
culties,  that  were  seemingly  insurmountable.  The  little  arm  ot 
the  sea,  ivhich  separated  the  island  from  the  continent,  was  ex- 
posed to  the  west  wind,  which  often  raised  such  dreadful  storms, 
that  the  waves  would  in  an  instant,  sweep  away  all  works.  Be- 
sides, as  the  city  was  surrounded,  on  all  sides,  by  the  sea,  there 
w^as  no  fixing  scaling  ladders,  nor  throwing  up  batteries,  but  at  a 
distance,  in  the  ships  ;  and  the  wall  which  projected  into  the  sea 
towards  the  lower  part,  prevented  people  from  landing:  moreover, 
the  military  engines,  which  might  have  been  put  on  board  the 
Ijalleys,  could  not  do  much  execution,  the  waves  were  so  very 
tumultuous.  These  obstacles,  however,  by  no  means  retarded 
the  enterprising  resolutions  of  Alexander  ;  but,  willing  to  gain  a 
place,  rather  by  treaty  than  by  the  sword,  he  sent  heralds  into 
the  city,  proposing  a  peace  between  the  Tyrians  and  him. 

The  citizens,  however,  a  tumultuous,  ungovernable  body,  in- 
stead of  listening  to  his  proposals,  instead  of  endeavouring  to  avert 
his  resentment,  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations,  killed  his  heralds, 
and  threw  them,  from  the  top  of  the  walls,  into  the  sea.  This 
outrage  inflamed  Alexander's  passions  to  the  highest  degree.  He 
resolved  upon  the  city's  destruction,  and  sat  down  before  it,  with 
persevering  resentment.  His  first  endeavour  was  to  form  a  pier, 
jutting  from  the  continent,  and  reaching  to  the  city.  From  the 
foundations  of  an  ancient  city,  upon  the  shore,  he  dug  stones  and 
rubbish  ;  from  mount  Libanus,  which  hung  over  the  city,  he  cut 
down  cedars  that  served  for  piles  :  and  thus  he  began  his  work, 
without  interruption. 
But  the  farther  they  went  from  shore,  the  greater  difficulties 


282 


THE  HISTORY 


they  met ;  because  the  sea  was  deeper,  and  the  workmen  were 
much  annoyed  by  the  darts  discharged  from  the  top  of  the  walls. 
The  enemy,  also,  who  were  masters  at  sea,  coming  in  great  boats, 
prevented  the  Macedonians  from  carrying  on  their  work  with 
vigour. 

At  last,  however,  the  pile  appeared  above  water,  a  level  of  con 
siderable  breadth.  Then,  the  besieged  perceived  their  rashness  : 
they  saw,  with  terror,  the  vastness  of  the  work  which  the  sea  had. 
till  then,  kept  from  their  sight,  and  now  began  to  attack  the  work- 
men with  javelins,  and  wound  them  at  a  distance.  It  was  there- 
fore resolved,  that  skins  and  sails  should  be  spread,  to  cover  the 
workmen ;  and  that  two  wooden  towers  should  be  raised,  at  the 
head  of  the  bank,  to  prevent  the  approaches  of  the  enemy.  Yet 
these  were  burned,  soon  afterwards,  by  the  besieged,  togethei 
with  all  the  wood-work  composing  the  pile,  that  could  be  touch 
ed  by  the  fire. 

Alexander,  though  he  saw  most  of  his  designs  defeated,  and  his 
works  demolished,  was  not  in  the  least  dejected.  His  soldiers  en- 
deavoured,  with  redoubled  vigour,  to  repair  the  ruins  of  the 
bank  ;  and  made  and  planted  new  machines,  with  such  prodigious 
speed,  as  quite  astonished  the  enemy.  Alexander  himself  was 
present  on  all  occasions,  and  superintended  every  part  of  the 
works.  His  presence  and  abilities  advanced  these  still  more  than 
the  multitude  of  hands  employed. 

The  whole  was  nearly  finished,  and  brought  almost  to  the  wall 
of  the  city,  when  there  arose,  on  a  sudden,  an  impetuous  wind, 
which  drove  the  waves  with  so  much  fury  agninst  the  mole,  that 
the  cement  and  other  things  that  barred  it,  gave  w;iy,  and  the 
water  rushing  through  the  stones,  broke  it  in  the  middle.  As 
soon  as  the  great  heap  of  stones  which  supported  the  earth  wai 
thrown  down,  the  whole  sunk  at  once,  as  into  an  abyss. 

Any  warrior,  but  Alexander,  would  that  instant  have  quite  laid 
aside  his  enterprise  ;  and  indeed  he  himseli'  debated  whether  he 
should  not  raise  the  siege.  But  a  superior  power,  who  had  fore- 
told and  sworn  the  ruin  of  Tyre,  and  whose  orders  this  prince 
only  executed,  prompted  him  to  continue  the  siege  ;  and,  dispel- 
ling all  his  fear  and  anxiety,  inspired  him  with  courage  and  con- 
fidence, and  fired  the  breast  of  his  whole  army  with  the  same 
sentiments.  For  now  the  soldiers,  as  if  but  that  moment  arrived 
before  the  city,  forgetting  all  the  toils  they  had  undergone,  began 
to  raise  a  new  mole,  at  which  they  worked  incessantly. 

In  the  mean  time,  Alexander  being  convinced  that  while  the 
enemy  remained  masters  at  sea,  the  city  could  not  be  taken,  with 
great  diligence  procured  a  fleet  from  various  parts,  and,  embark- 
ing himself,  with  some  soldiers  from  among  his  gu?rd,  he  set  sail 
towards  the  Tyrian  fleet,  forming  a  line  of  battle.     The  Tyrinna 


OF  GKEECE. 


283 


were  at  first  determined  to  oppose  him  openly  ;  but,  perceiving 
the  superiority  of  his  forces,  they  kept  all  the  galleys  in  their  har- 
bour, to  prevent  the  enemy  from  entering  there.  Alexander, 
therefore,  was  contented  to  draw  up  his  ships  near  the  bank  along 
the  shore,  where  they  rode  in  safety,  and  kept  the  enemy  from 
annoying  his  workmen,  who  were  employed  upon  the  bank. 

^  The  hesiegers,  thus  protected,  went  on  with  great  vigour. 
The  workmen  threw  into  the  sea  whole  trees,  with  all  their 
branches  ;  and  laid  great  stones  over  these,  on  which  they  put 
other  trees,  and  the  latter  they  covered  with  clay,  which  served 
mstead  of  mortar.  Afterwards,  heaping  more  trees  and  stones  on 
these,  the  whole  thus  joined  together,  formed  one  entire  body 
This  bank  was  made  wider  than  the  former  ;  in  order  that  the 
towers  that  were  built  in  the  middle,  might  be  out  of  the  reach 
of  such  arrows  as  should  be  shot  from  those  ships,  which  might 
attempt  to  break  down  the  edges  of  the  bank. 

Thus,  after  many  delays,  the  patience  of  the  workmen  sur- 
mounting every  obstacle,  it  was  at  last  finished,  in  its  utmost  per- 
fection. The  Macedonians  placed  military  engines,  of  all  kinds, 
on  the  bank,  in  order  to  shake  the  walls  with  battering-rams, 
and  hurl  on  the  besieged,  arrows,  stones,  and  burning  torches. 
Thus,  by  degrees,  approaching  to  the  foot  of  the  wall,  the 
Tyrians  were  attacked  in  close  combat,  and  invested  on  all  sides, 
both  by  sea  and  land.  A  general  attack  was  now  the  reform 
thought  necessary ;  and  the  king,  manning  his  galleys,  which  he 
had  joined  to  each  other,  ordered  them  to  approach  the  walls 
about  midnight,  and  attack  the  city  with  resolution. 

The  Tyrians  now  gave  themselves  over  for  lost ;  when,  on  a 
sudden,  the  sky  was  overspread  with  such  thick  clouds,  as  quite 
took  away  the  faint  glimmering  of  light  which  before  darted 
through  the  gloom  ;  the  sea  rose,  by  insensible  degrees,  and  the 
billows,  being  swMlcd  by  the  fury  of  the  winds,  increased  to  a 
dreadful  storm ;  the  vessels  dashed  one  against  another,  with  so 
much  violence,  that  the  cables,  which  before  fastened  them  to 
gether,  were  either  loosened  or  broken  to  pieces ;  the  planks 
6j)lit,  and,  making  a  horrible  crash,  carried  ofi"  the  soldiers  with 
them  ;  for  the  tempest  was  so  furious,  that  it  was  not  possible  to 
manage  or  steer  the  galleys  thus  fastened  together.  At  last,  how- 
ever, they  brought  them  near  the  shore ;  but  the  greater  part 
were  shattered. 

This  good  fortune  of  the  Tynans  was  counterbalanced  by  an 
unexpected  calamity.  They  had  long  expected  succours  from 
Carthage,  a  flourishing  colony  of  their  own,  but  they  now  re- 
ceived advice,  that  the  Carthaginians  were  unable  to  give  thero 
any  assistance ;  being  overawed  themselves  by  a  powerful  army 
of  Syracusans,  who  were  laying  waste  their  country.     The 


2S4 


THE  HISTORY 


'J'yrians,  therefore,  frustrated  in  their  hopes,  still  retained  the 
resolution  of  defending  themselves  to  the  last  extremity  ;  and 
accordingly  sent  off  their  women  and  children  to  Carthaije,  as 
being  of  no  use  in  the  defence  of  their  city. 

The  engines  now  playing,  the  city  was  warmly  attacked,  on  all 
sides,  and  jis  vigorously  defended.  The  besieged,  taught  and 
animated  by  imminent  danger,  and  the  extreme  necessity  to  which 
they  were  reduced,  invented  daily  new  arts,  to  defend  themselves, 
and  repulse  the  enemy.  They  warded  offall  the  darts  discharged 
from  the  balistas,  by  the  assistance  of  turning  wheels,  which 
either  broke  them  to  pieces,  or  carried  them  another  way.  They 
deadened  the  violence  of  the  stones  that  were  hurled  at  them, 
by  setting  up  a  kind  of  sails  and  curtains,  made  of  a  soft  sub- 
stance, which  easily  gave  way. 

To  annoy  the  ships  which  advanced  against  their  wall,  they 
fixed  grappling  irons  and  scythes  to  joists  or  beams  ;  then,  strain, 
ing  their  catapultas  (an  enormous  kind  of  cross-bow)  they  laid 
those  great  pieces  o!  timber  upon  them,  instead  of  arrows,  and 
shot  them  off,  on  a  sudden,  at  the  enemy  :  these  crushed  some 
to  pieces,  by  their  great  weight;  and  the  hooks  or  pensile 
ecythes,  with  which  they  were  armed,  tore  others  to  pieces,  and 
did  considerable  damage  to  their  ships. 

They  had  also  brazen  shields,  which  they  drew  red  hot  out  of 
the  fire  ;  and,  filling  these  with  burning  sand,  they  hurled  them,  in 
an  instant,  from  the  top  of  the  wall,  upon  the  enemy.  There  was 
nothing  the  Macedonians  so  much  dreaded,  as  this  last  invention. 
The  moment  this  burning  sand  got  to  the  flesh,  through  the  crevfces 
m  the  armour,  it  pierced  to  the  very  bone,  and  stuck  so  close,  that 
there  was  no  pulling  it  off  i  so  that  the  soldiers,  throwing  down 
their  arms,  and  tearing  their  clothes  to  pieces,  were  in  this  man- 
ner exposed,  naked  and  defenceless,  to  the  shot  of  the  enemy. 

It  was  now  thought  that  Alexander,  quite  diooouraged  with  his 
loss,  was  determined  to  relinquish  the  siege  ;  but  he  resolved  to 
make  a  last  effort,  with  a  great  number  of  ships,  which  he  manned 
with  the  flower  of  his  army.  Accordingly,  a  second  naval  en- 
gagement was  fought ;  in  which,  the  Tyrians,  after  fighting  with  in- 
trepidity, were  obliged  to  draw  off  their  whole  fleet  towards  the 
city.  The  king  pursued  their  rear,  very  close,  but  was  not  able  to 
enter  the  harbour,  being  repulsed  by  arrows  shot  from  the  wall . 
however,  he  either  took  or  sunk  a  great  number  of  their  ships 

Both  the  attack  and  defence  were  now  more  vigorous  than 
ever.  The  courage  of  the  combatants  increased  with  the  danger  ; 
and  each  side,  animated  by  the  most  powerful  motives,  fought 
(ike  lions.  Wherever  the  battering-rams  had  beaten  down  an> 
part  of  the  wall,  and  the  bridges  were  thrown  out,  instantly  the 
Argy.raspides  mojooteclthe  breach,  with  the  utmost  valour^  Ueing 


OF  GliEECE. 


2S5 


neaded  by  Admetus,  one  of  the  bravest  officers  in  the  armv  who 
was  kdled  by  the  thrust  of  a  spear,  as  he  was  encouraging  his 
soldiers  The  presence  of  the  king,  and  especially  the  example 
he  set,  hred  his  troops  with  unusual  bravery. 

He  himself  ascended  one  of  the  towers,  which  was  of  a  pro- 
digious  height,  and  there  was  exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers  his 
courage  had  ever  made  him  hazard.  Being  immediatel/known 
by  his  insignia,  and  the  richness  of  his  armour,  he  served  as  a 
mark  for  all  the  arrows  of  the  enemy.  On  this  occasion,  he  per- 
formed  wonders  ;  killing,  with  javelins,  several  of  those  who  de- 
fended the  wall :  then,  advancing  nearer  to  them,  he  forced  some 
with  the  sword,  and  others  with  the  shield,  either  into  the  city  or 
the  sea  ;  the  tower  where  he  fought  almost  touching  the  wall. 

lie  soon  ascended  the  wall,  by  the  assistance  of  floating  brid^^cs  • 
and,  followed  by  the  principal  officers,  occupied  the  two  tow^ers' 
ond  the  space  between  them.  The  battering-rams  had  already 
made  several  breaches  ;  the  fleet  had  forced  into  the  harbour  • 
and  some  of  the  Macedonians  had  taken  possession  of  the  towers 
which  had  been  abandoned.  The  Tyrians,  seeing  the  enemy  mas- 
ters  of  their  rampart,  retired  towards  an  open  place,  called 
Agenor,  and  there  stood  their  ground  :  but  Alexander,  marchin.^ 
up  with  his  regiment  of  body-guards,  killed  part  of  them,  and 
obliged  the  rest  to  fly. 

At  the  same  time.  Tyre  being  taken  on  that  side  which  lay  to- 
wards the  harbour,  the  Macedonians  ran  up  and  down  every  part 
o|  the  city,  sparing  no  person  who  came  in  their  way  :  "bein<r 
highly  exasperated  at  the  long  resistance  of  the  besieged  and 
the  barbarities  they  had  exercised  towards  some  of  their  com- 
rades, who  had  been  taken  in  their  return  to  Sidon,  and  thrown 
irom  the  battlements,  after  their  throats  had  been  cut,  in  the  sight 
of  the  whole  army. 

The  Tyrians,  thus  reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  shut  them- 
•elves  up  m  their  houses,  to  avoid  the  sword  of  the  conqueror- 
others  rushed  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  to  sell  their  lives  as 
dearly  as  they  could  ;  and  some  threw  stones  from  the  tops  of 
their  houses,  to  crush  the  sailors  below  ;  the  old  men  waited  at 
their  doors,  expecting,  every  instant,  to  be  sacrificed,  from  the 
rage  of  the  soldiers.  In  this  general  carnage,  the  Sidonian  soldiers 
alone,  that  were  in  Alexander's  army,  seemed  touched  with  pity 
lor  the  fate  of  the  wretched  inhabitants  ;  they  gave  protection  to 
many  of  the  Tyrians,  whom  they  considered  as  countrymen, 
and  carried  great  numbers  of  them  privately  on  board  their  ships! 

The  number  thus  slaughtered  by  the  enraged  soldiers,  is  in- 
credible :  even  after  conquest,  the  victor's  resentment  did  not 
iubside  ;  he  ordered  no  less  than  two  thousand  men,  that  were 
taken  in  the  storm,  to  be  nailed  to  crosses  along  the  shore.  The 


2S6 


THE  HISTORY 


number  of  prisoners  amounted  to  thidy  thousand,  and  were  all 
sold  as  slaves,  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Thus  fell  Tyre, 
which  had  been,  for  many  ages,  the  most  flourishing  city  in  the 
world,  and  had  spread  the  arts  of  commerce  into  the  remotest 


regions. 


Whilst  Alexander  was  carrying  on  the  siege  of  Tyre,  he  rc« 
ceived  a  second  letter  from  Darius,  in  which  that  monarch  seemed 
more  sensible  of  his  power,  than  before.  He  now  gave  him  the 
title  of  king,  and  offered  him  ten  thousand  talents,  as  a  ransom 
for  his  captive  mother  and  wife :  he  offered  him  his  daughter 
Statira,  in  marriage,  with  all  the  country  he  ha(!  conquered,  as 
far  as  the  river  Euphrates  ;  he  hinted  to  him  the  inconstancy  of 
fortune,  and  described,  at  large,  the  powers  he  was  still  pos- 
sessed of  to  oppose. 

These  terms  were  so  considerable,  that,  when  the  king  de- 
bated upon  them  in  council,  Parmenio,  one  of  his  generals,  could 
not  help  observing,  that,  if  he  were  Alexander,  he  would  agree 
to  such  a  proposal ;  to  which,  Alexander  nobly  replied,  "  And 
so  would  1,  were  I  Parmenio  T*  He  therefore  treated  the  pro- 
posals of  Darius  with  haughty  contempt,  and  refused  to  accept 
of  treasures  which  he  already  considered  as  his  own. 

From  Tyre,  Alexander  marched  to  Jerusalem,  fully  resolved 
to  punish  that  city,  for  having  refused  to  supply  his  army  with 
provisions  during  the  last  siege  ;  but  the  resentment  of  the  con- 
queror was  averted,  by  meeting  a  procession  of  the  inhabitants 
of  that  city,  marching  out  to  receive  him,  dressed  in  white,  with 
a  Jewish  high  priest  before  them,  with  a  mitre  on  his  head,  ob 
the  front  of  which  the  name  of  God  was  written. 

The  moment  the  king  perceived  the  high  priest,  he  advanced 
towards  him,  with  an  air  of  the  most  profound  respect,  bowed  his 
bofly,  adored  the  august  name  upon  his  front,  and  saluted  him 
who  wore  it,  with  religious  veneration.  Then,  the  Jews,  sur- 
rounding Alexander,  raised  their  voices,  to  wish  him  every  kind 
of  prosperity.  All  the  spectators  were  seized  with  inexpressible 
surprise  :  they  could  scarcely  believe  their  eyes  ;  and  did  not 
know  how  to  account  for  a  sight  so  contrary  to  their  expectation, 
and  so  vastly  improbable. 

Parmenio,  who  could  not  yet  recover  from  his  astonishment, 
asked  the  king,  how  it  came  to  pass,  that  he,  who  was  adored  by 
every  one,  adored  the  high  priest  of  the  Jews  ?  "  I  do  not,"  re- 
plied Alexander,  "  adore  the  high  priest ;  but  the  God  whose 
minister  he  is.  Whilst  1  was  at  Dia,  in  Macedonia,  my  mind 
wholly  fixed  on  the  great  design  of  the  Persian  war,  as  1  waa 
revolving  the  methods  how  to  conquer  Asia,  this  very  man, 
dressed  in  the  same  robes,  appeared  tome,  in  a  dream,  exhorted 
uio  to  banish  my  <V»ar,  bade  me  cross  the  Hellespont  boldly,  and 


OF  GREECE. 


ii87 


assured  me  that  God  would  march  at  the  head  of  my  army  and 
give  me  the  victory  over  that  of  the  Persians."  " 

This  speech,  delivered  with  an  air  of  sincerity,  no  doubt  had 
Its  effect,  in  encouraging  the  army,  and  establishing  an  opinion  that 
Alexander's  mission  was  from  heaven.  Alexander  having  em- 
braced the  high  priest,  was  conducted  by  him  to  the  temple  ; 
where,  after  he  had  explained  to  him  many  prophecies  in  different 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  concerning  his  invasion,  he  taught 
him  to  offer  up  a  sacrifice  in  the  Jewish  manner. 

Alexander  was  so  much  pleased  with  his  reception  upon  this 
occasion,  that,  before  he  left  Jerusalem,  he  assembled  the  Jews, 
and  bade  them  ask  any  favour  they  should  think  proper.  Their 
request  was.  To  be  allowed  to  live  according  to  their  ancient  laws 
and  maxims  ;  to  be  exempted  from  tribute  every  seventh  year, 
as  they  were,  by  their  laws,  forbidden  to  labour,  and  could  con* 
sequently  have  no  harvest :  they  also  requested,  that  such  of 
their  brethren  as  settled  in  Asia,  should  be  indulged  in  the  same 
privileges.  Being  gratified  in  all  their  desire?,  great  numbers 
offered  to  enlist  themselves  in  his  army.  Soon  after,  the  Sama- 
ritans  demanded  the  same  favours  ;  but  he  gave  them  an  evasive 
answer,  and  promised  to  take  the  matter  into  consideration,  upon 
bis  return. 

From  this  city,  he  went  on  to  Gaza,  where  he  found  a  more  ob. 
stinate  resistance  than  he  had  expected  ;  but  at  length  taking  the 
town  by  storm,  and  having  cut  to  pieces  the  garrison,  consisting  ot 
ten  thousand  men,  with  brutal  ferocity,  he  ordered  Boetis,  the  gov  - 
crnor,  to  be  brought  before  him  ;  and,  having  in  vain  endeavour- 
ed  to  intimidate  him,  commanded,  at  last,  that  holes  should  be 
bored  through  his  heels,  and,  that  he  should  be  tied  by  cords, 
thrust  through  these  holes,  to  the  back  of  his  chariot,  and  in  this 
manner  be  dragged  round  the  walls  of  the  city.  This,  he  did,  in 
imitation  of  Achilles  ;  whom  Homer  describes  as  having  dragged 
Hector,  in  the  same  manner,  round  the  walls -of  Troy:  but  it 
was  leading  the  poet  to  very  little  advantage,  to  imitate' his  hero 
in  the  most  unworthy  part  of  his  character. 

As  soon  as  Alexander  had  ended  the  siege  of  Gaza,  he  left  a 
garrison  there,  and  turned  the  whole  power  of  his  arms  towards 
Egypt,  [n  seven  days  march,  he  arrived  before  Pelusium.  whith- 
er a  great  number  of  Egyptians  had  assembled,  with  all  imagina- 
ble diligence,  to  own  him  for  their  sovereign;  being  heartily 
displeased  with  the  Persian  government,  as  likewise  the  Persian 
governors  ;  as  the  one  destroyed  their  liberty,  the  other  ridiculed 
their  religion. 

Mas«us,  the  Persian  governor,  who  commanded  in  Memphis, 
finding  it  would  be  to  no  purpose  for  him  to  resist  so  triumphant  aD 
army,  and  that  Darius,  his  sovereign,  was  not  in  a  condition  to  sue 


288 


THE  HISTORY 


cour  him,  set  open  the  gates  of  the  city  to  the  conqueror,  and  gave 
up  eight  hundred  talents  (about  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
pounds)  and  all  the  king's  furniture.  Thus,  Alexander  obtained 
possession  of  all  Egypt,  without  meeting  the  least  opposition. 

He  now  therefore  formed  a  design  of  visiting  the  temple  of 
Jupiter.  This  temple  was  situated  at  a  distance  of  twelve  days 
journey  from  Memphis,  in  the  midst  of  the  sandy  deserts  of  Lybia. 
Alexander  having  read,  in  Homer,  and  other  fabulous  authors  of 
antiquity,  that  most  of  the  heroes  were  represented  as  the  sons  of 
some  deity,  was  wiUing,  himself,  to  pass  for  a  hero,  and  knew  that 
he  could  bribe  the  priests  to  compliment  him,  as  of  celestial  origin. 
Setting  out,  therefore,  along  the  river  Memphis,  and  after  having 
passed  Canopus,  opposite  the  island  of  Pharos,  he  there  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  city  of  Alexandria;  which,  in  a  little  time,  became 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns,  for  commerce,  in  the  world. 

From  thence,  he  had  a  journey  of  three  hundred  and  forty 
miles,  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter;  the  way  leading  through  inhospita- 
ble deserts,  and  plains  of  sand.  The  soldiers  were  patient  enough, 
for  the  two  first  days  march,  before  they  arrived  amidst  the  dread- 
ful solitudes  ;  but,  as  soon  as  they  found  themselves  in  vast  plains, 
covered  with  sands  of  a  prodigious  depth,  they  were  greatly  ter- 
rified. Surrounded,  as  with  a  sea,  they  gazed  around,  as  far  as 
their  sight  could  extend,  to  discover,  if  possible,  some  place  that 
was  inhabited  ;  but,  all  in  vain  :  they  could  not  perceive  so  much 
as  a  single  tree,  nor  the  least  appearance  of  any  cultivated  lund. 

To  increase  their  calamity,  the  water  brought  by  them,  in  goat- 
sldns,  upon  camels,  now  failed,  and  there  was  not  so  much  as  a 
single  drop,  in  all  that  sandy  desert.  They  were,  however,  great- 
ly refreshed,  by  the  accidental  falling  of  a  shower,  which  served 
to  encourage  them  in  their  progress,  till  they  came  to  the  temple 
of  the  deity.  Nothing  can  be  more  fanciful,  than  the  dcscriptioD 
the  historians  have  given  us  of  this  gloomy  retreat.  It  is  repre- 
sented as  a  sn»all  spot  of  fertile  ground,  in  the  midst  of  vast  soli- 
tudes of  sand :  it  is  covered  with  the  thickest  trees,  which  ex- 
clude the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  and  watered  with  several  springs, 
which  preserved  it  in  perpetual  verdure  :  near  the  grove  where 
the  temple  stood,  was  the  Fountain  of  the  Sun;  which,  at  day- 
break, was  lukewarm,  at  noon  cold,  then  towards  evening  insen- 
sibly grew  warmer,  and  was  boiling  hot  at  midnight. 

The  god  worshipped  in  this  place,  had  his  statue  made  of 
emeralds,  and  other  precious  stones  ;  and,,  from  the  head  to  the 
waist,  resembled  a  ram.  No  sooner  had  Alexander  appeared  be- 
fore the  altar,  than  the  high-priest  declared  him  to  be  the  son  of 
Tupiter.  The  conqueror,  quite  intoxicated  witli  adulation,  asked. 
•  Whether  he  should  have  success  in  his  expedition  ;**  the  priest 
answered,  "  That  he  should  be  monarch  of  the  world  :" — th« 


OF  GUEECE. 


289 


conqueror  inquired,  "  If  his  father's  murderers  were  punished ;' 
the  priest  replied,  "  That  his  father  Jupiter  was  immortal,  buf 
that  the  murderers  of  Philip  had  all  been  extirpated." 

Alexander  having  ended  his  sacrifice,  and  rewarded  the  priest? 
who  had  been  so  Uberal  of  their  titles,  from  that  time  supposed 
himself,  or  would  have  it  supposed,  that  he  was  the  son  of  Ju 
piter.  Upon  his  return  from  the  temple,  and  during  his  stay  in 
EgyP^  ^^  settled  the  government  of  that  country  upon  the  most 
solid  foundation:  he  divided  it  into  districts,  over  which  he  ap- 
pointed a  lieutenant,  who  received  orders  from  himself  alone  . 
and,  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  he  set  out,  to  march  against  Da- 
rius, who  was  preparing  to  oppose  him. 

He  made  some  stay  at  Tyre,  to  settle  the  various  a(!;urs  of 
the  countries  he  had  le^  behind ;  and  advanced  towards  new 
conquests.  On  his  march,  the  wife  of  Darius  died  in  child-bed, 
and  was  honoured  with  a  funeral  ceremony,  due  to  her  exalted 
character.  He  continued  his  journey  towards  the  Tigris  ;  where 
he  at  last  expected  to  come  up  with  the  enemy,  and  strike  one 
blow,  which  should  decide  the  fate  of  nations.  Darius  had  al- 
ready twice  made  overtures  of  peace  ;  but,  finding,  at  last,  that 
there  were  no  hopes  of  concluding  one,  unless  he  resigned  the 
whole  empire  to  him,  prepared  himself  again  for  battle. 

For  this  purpose,  he  assembled,  in  Babylon,  an  army  half 
as  numerous  again  as  that  at  Issus,  and  marched  it  towards 
Nineveh.  His  forces  covered  all  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia. 
Advice  having  been  brought,  that  the  enemy  was  not  far  off,  he 
caused  Satropates,  colonel  of  the  cavalry,  to  advance,  at  the 
head  of  a  thousand  chosen  horse  ;  and  likewise  gave  six  thou- 
sand to  Mazaeus,  governor  of  the  province  ;  all  of  whom  were 
to  prevent  Alexander  from  crossing  the  river,  and  to  lay  waste 
the  country  through  which  that  monarch  was  to  pass.  But  he 
arrived  too  late. 

The  Tigris  is  the  most  rapid  river  of  all  the  East ;  and  it  was 
with  some  difficulty  that  Alexander's  soldiers  were  able  to  stem 
the  current,  carrying  their  arms  over  their  heads.  The  king 
walked  on  foot  among  the  infantry,  and  pointed  out,  with  his  hand, 
the  passage  to  his  soldiers  :  he  commanded  them,  with  a  loud 
voice,  to  save  nothing  but  their  arms  ;  and  let  their  baggage  that 
retarded  them  in  the  water,  float  away  with  the  stream.  At 
le.igth,  they  were  drawn  up,  in  battle  array,  on  the  opposite 
shore  :  and  encamped  two  days  near  the  river,  still  preparca 
for  action. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which  happened  about  that  time,  gave 
Alexander's  soldiers  great  uneasiness  ;  but  he  brought  fonvard 
Tiome.Egyptian  soothsayers,  who  assured  the  army,  "  That  the 
moon  portended  calamities  not  to  the  Greeks,  but  the  Persians  * 


890 


THE  HISTORY 


By  this  artifice,  the  hopes  and  the  courage  of  the  soldiers  heing 
revived  once  more,  the  king  led  them  on  to  meet  the  enemy,  and 
began  his  march  at  midnight  On  his  right  hand,  lay  the  Tigris, 
and  on  his  left  the  Gordylean  mountains.  At  break  of  day,  news 
was  brought,  that  Darius  was  only  twenty  miles  distant  All 
things  now  therefore  threatened  an  approaching  battle  ;  when 
Darius,  who  had  already  twice  sued  for  peace,  sent  new  condi- 
tions,still  more  advantageous  than  the  former.  But  Alexander 
refused  his  ofifers  ;  proudly  replying,  '*  That  the  world  would 
not  permit  two  suns,  nor  Asia  two  kings."  Thus,  all  negociatior 
being  at  an  end,  both  sides  prepared  for  battle ;  equally  irritated 
and  equally  ambitious.  Darius  pitched  his  camp  near  a  village, 
called  Gaugamila,  and  the  river  Bumela,  in  a  plain,  at  a  con 
eiderable  distance  from  Arbela.  He  had  before  levelled  the  spot, 
which  he  had  pitched  upon  for  the  field  of  battle,  in  order  that 
his  chariots  and  cavalry  might  have  full  room  to  move ;  as  hif 
tighting  in  the  straits  of  Cilicia,  had  there  lost  him  the  battle. 

Alexander,  upon  hearing  this  news,  continued  four  days  in  the 
place  in  which  he  then  was,  to  rest  his  army,  and  surrounded  hit 
camp  with  trenches  and  palisades;  for  he  was  determined  to 
leave  there  all  his  baggage  and  the  useless  soldiers,  and  march 
the  remainder  against  the  enemy,  with  no  other  equipage  than 
♦he  arms  they  carried  Accordingly,  he  set  out  about  nine  in  the 
evening,  in  order  to  fight  Darius  at  day-break ;  who,  upon  being 
advised  of  this,  had  drawn  up  his  army  in  order  of  battle.  Alex 
ander  also  marched  in  battle  array;  for  both  armies  were  withiv 
two  or  three  leagues  of  each  other. 

When  he  had  arrived  at  the  mountains,  where  he  could  dis 
cover  the  enemy's  army,  he  halted;  and,  having  assembled  his 
general  officers,  as  well  Macedonians  as  foreigners,  he  debated 
whether  they  should  engage  immediately,  or  pitch  their  camp  w 
that  place.  The  latter  opinion  being  followed,  because  it  was 
judged  proper  for  them  to  view  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  enemy  was  drawn  up,  the  army  encamped,  in  th* 
same  order  in  which  it  had  marched ;  during  which,  Alexander 
at  the  head  of  his  infantry ,  lightly  armed,  and  his  royal  regiments, 
iiinn^hed  round  the  plain  in  which  the  battle  was  to  be  fought. 

Having  returned,  he  assembled  his  general  officers,  a  second 
time,  and  told  them  that  there  was  no  occasion  for  making  a 
speech,  because  their  courage  and  great  actions  were  alone  suf- 
ficient to  excite  them  to  glory;  and  he  desired  them  only  to  re- 
present to  the  soldiers,  that  they  were  not  to  fight,  on  this  occa 
sion,  for  Phoenicia  or  Egypt,  but  for  all  Asia,  which  would  be 
possessed  by  him  who  should  conquer ;  and  that,  after  having 
gone  through  so  many  provinces,  and  left  behind  them  so  great 
a  number  of  rivera  and  mountains,  they  could  secure  their  retreal 


OF  GREECE, 


291 


no  otherwise,  than  by  gaining  a  complete  victory.     After  this 
speech,  he  ordered  them  to  take  some  repose. 

It  is  said,  Parmenio  advised  him  to  attack  the  enemy  in  the 
night  time,  alleging  that  they  might  easily  be  defeated,  if  fallen 
upon  by  surprise,  and  in  the  dark  ;  but  the  king  answered  so  loud, 
that  all  present  might  hear  him,  that  it  did  not  become  Alexan- 
der to  steal  a  victory,  and  therefore  he  was  resolved  to  fight  and 
conquer  in  broad  day  light.  This  was  a  haughty,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  a  prudent  answer :  it  was  running  great  hazard,  to 
fall  upon  so  numerous  an  army  in  the  night  time,  and  in  an  un- 
known country.  Darius,  fearing  he  should  be  attacked  unawares, 
because  he  had  not  intrenched  himself,  obliged  his  soldiers  to 
continue  the  whole  night  under  arms,  which  proved  of  the  high- 
est injury  to  him  in  the  engagement. 

In  the  mean  time,  Alexander  went  to  bed,  to  repose  himself 
the  remaining  part  of  the  night.  As  he  revolved  in  his  mind,  not 
without  some  emotion,  the  consequence  of  the  battle  which  was 
upon  the  point  of  being  fought,  he  could  not  immediately  sleep. 
But  his  body  being  oppressed,  in  a  manner,  by  the  anxiety  of  his 
mmd,  he  slept  soundly  the  whole  night,  contrary  to  his  usual  ^ 
custom  ;  so  that  when  his  generals  were  assembled,  at  day  break, 
before  his  tent,  to  receive  his  orders,  they  were  greatly  sur 
prised  to  find  he  was  not  awake  ;  upon  which,  they  themselves 
commanded  the  soldiers  to  take  some  refreshment. 

Parmenio  having,  at  last,  awaked  him,  and  seeming  surprised 
to  find  him  in  so  calm  and  sweet  a  sleep,  just  as  he  was  going  to 
fight  a  battle,  in  which  his  whole  fortune  lay  at  stake,  "How 
could  it  be  possible,"  said  Alexander,  *-for  me  not  to  be  calm, 
smce  the  enemy  is  coming  to  deliver  himself  into  mv  hands  ?" 
Upon  this,  he  immediately  took  up  his  arms,  mounted'^his  horse, 
and  rode  up  and  down  the  ranks,  exhorting  the  troops  to  behave 
gallantly,  and,  if  possible,  to  surpass  their  ancient  fame,  and  the 
glory  they  had  hitherto  acquired. 

There  was  a  great  difference  between  the  two  armies,  in  re- 
spect to  numbers,  but  much  more  with  regard  to  courage.  That 
of  Darius  consisted  at  least  of  six  hundred  thousand  foot,  and 
forty  thousand  horse  ;  and  the  other,  of  no  more  than  forty  thou- 
sand foot,  and  seven  or  eight  thousand  horse  :  but  the  latter  was 
all  fire  and  strength ;  whereas,  on  the  side  of  the  Persians,  it 
was  a  prodigious  assemblage  of  men,  not  of  soldiers  ;  an  empty 
phantom,  rather  than  a  real  army.  Both  sides  were  disposed  i^ 
very  nearly  the  same  array.  The  forces  were  drawn  up  in  two 
hnes,  the  cavalry  on  the  two  wings,and  the  infantry  in  the  mid 
die  ;  the  one  and  the  other  being  under  the  particular  conduct  of 
the  chiefs  of  each  of  the  different  nations  that  composed  them 
and  commanded,  in  general,  by  the  principal  crown  officers. 


990 


THE  HISTORY 


By  this  artifice,  tlie  hopes  and  the  courage  of  the  soldiers  being 
revived  once  more,  the  king  led  them  on  to  meet  the  enemy,  and 
began  his  march  at  midnight  On  his  right  hand,  lay  the  Tigris, 
and  on  his  left  the  Gordylean  mountains.  At  break  of  day,  news 
was  brought,  that  Darius  was  only  twenty  miles  distant  All 
things  now  therefore  threatened  an  approaching  battle  ;  when 
Darius,  who  had  already  twice  sued  for  peace,  sent  new  condi- 
tions,still  more  advantageous  than  the  former.  But  Alexander 
refused  his  ofifera  ;  proudly  replying,  **  That  the  world  would 
not  permit  two  suns,  nor  Asia  two  kings."  Thus,  all  negociatior 
being  at  an  end,  both  sides  prepared  for  battle  ;  equally  irritated 
and  equally  ambitious.  Darius  pitched  his  camp  near  a  village, 
called  Gaugamila,  and  the  river  Bumela,  in  a  plain,  at  a  con 
siderable  distance  from  Arbela.  He  had  before  levelled  the  spot, 
which  he  had  pitched  upon  for  the  field  of  battle,  in  order  that 
his  chariots  and  cavalry  might  have  full  room  to  move ;  as  hif 
fifrhtins:  in  the  straits  of  Cilicia,  had  there  lost  him  the  battle. 

Alexander,  upon  hearing  this  news,  continued  four  days  in  the 
place  in  which  he  then  was,  to  rest  his  army,  and  surrounded  his 
camp  with  trenches  and  palisades;  for  he  was  determined  to 
leave  there  all  his  baggage  and  the  useless  soldiers,  J»nd  march 
the  remainder  against  the  enemy,  with  no  other  equipage  than 
♦he  arms  they  carried  Accordingly,  he  set  out  about  nine  in  the 
evening,  in  order  to  fight  Darius  at  day-break ;  who,  upon  being 
advised  of  this,  had  drawn  up  his  army  in  order  of  battle.  Alex 
ander  also  marched  in  battle  array;  for  both  armies  were  withiv 
two  or  three  leagues  of  each  other. 

When  he  had  arrived  at  the  mountains,  where  he  could  dis 
cover  the  enemy's  army,  he  halted;  and,  having  assembled  hi» 
general  officers,  as  well  Macedonians  as  foreigners,  he  debated 
whether  they  should  engage  immediately,  or  pitch  their  camp  w 
that  place.  The  latter  opinion  being  followed,  because  it  was 
judged  proper  for  them  to  view  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  enemy  was  drawn  up,  the  army  encamped,  in  th© 
same  order  in  which  it  had  marched ;  during  which,  Alexander 
at  the  head  of  his  infantry ,  lightly  armed,  and  his  royal  regiments, 
uinrrhed  round  the  plain  in  which  the  battle  was  to  be  fought. 

Having  returned,  he  assembled  his  general  officers,  a  second 
rime,  and  told  them  that  there  was  no  occasion  for  making  a 
speech,  because  their  courage  and  great  actions  were  alone  suf- 
ficient to  excite  them  to  glory;  and  he  desired  them  only  to  re- 
present to  the  soldiers,  that  they  were  not  to  fight,  on  this  occa 
sion,  for  Phcenicia  or  Egypt,  but  for  all  Asia,  which  would  be 
possessed  by  him  who  should  conquer ;  and  that,  after  having 
gone  through  so  many  provinces,  and  left  behind  them  so  great 
a  number  of  rivers  and  mountain^),  they  could  secure  their  retreat 


OF  GREECE. 


291 


no  otherwise,  than  by  gaining  a  complete  victory.     After  this 
speech,  he  ordered  them  to  take  some  repose. 

It  i«  said,  Parmenio  advised  him  to  attack  the  enemy  in  the 
night  time,  alleging  that  they  might  easily  be  defeated,  if  fallen 
upon  by  surprise,  and  in  the  dark  ;  but  the  king  answered  so  loud, 
that  all  present  might  hear  him,  that  it  did  not  become  Alexan- 
der to  steal  a  victory,  and  therefore  he  was  resolved  to  fight  and 
conquer  in  broad  day  light  This  was  a  haughty,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  a  prudent  answer :  it  was  running  great  hazard,  to 
fall  upon  so  numerous  an  army  in  the  night  time,  and  in  an  un- 
known country.  Darius,  fearing  he  should  be  attacked  unawares, 
because  he  had  not  intrenched  himself,  obliged  his  soldiers  to 
continue  the  whole  night  under  arms,  which  proved  of  the  high- 
est injury  to  him  in  the  engagement 

In  the  mean  time,  Alexander  went  to  bed,  to  repose  himself 
the  remaining  part  of  the  night.  As  he  revolved  in  his  mind,  not 
without  some  emotion,  the  consequence  of  the  battle  which  was 
upon  the  point  of  being  fought,  he  could  not  immediately  sleep. 
But  his  body  being  oppressed,  in  a  manner,  by  the  anxiety  of  his 
mind,  he  slept  soundly  the  whole  night,  contrary  to  his  usual' 
custom  ;  so  that  when  his  generals  were  assembled,  at  day  break, 
before  his  tent,  to  receive  his  orders,  they  were  greatly  sur 
prised  to  find  he  was  not  awake  ;  upon  which,  they  themselves 
commanded  the  soldiers  to  take  some  refreshment. 

Parmenio  having,  at  last,  awaked  him,  and  seeming  surprised 
to  find  him  in  so  calm  and  sweet  a  sleep,  just  as  he  was  going  to 
fight  a  battle,  in  which  his  whole  fortune  lay  at  stake,  "  How 
could  it  be  possible,'*  said  Alexander,  *•  for  me  not  to  be  calm, 
since  the  enemy  is  coming  to  deliver  himself  into  my  hands  ?" 
Upon  this,  he  immediately  took  up  his  arms,  mounted'^his  horse, 
and  rode  up  and  down  the  ranks,  exhorting  the  troops  to  behave 
gallantly,  and,  if  possible,  to  surpass  their  ancient  fame,  and  the 
glory  they  had  hitherto  acquired. 

There  was  a  great  difference  between  the  two  armies,  in  re- 
spect to  numbers,  but  much  more  with  regard  to  courage.  That 
of  Darius  consisted  at  least  of  six  hundred  thousand  foot,  and 
forty  thousand  horse  ;  and  the  other,  of  no  more  than  forty  thou- 
sand foot,  and  seven  or  eight  thousand  horse  :  but  the  latter  was 
all  fire  and  strength ;  whereas,  on  the  side  of  the  Persians,  it 
was  a  prodigious  assemblage  of  men,  not  of  soldiers  ;  an  empty 
phantom,  rather  than  a  real  army.  Both  sides  were  disposed  i^ 
very  nearly  the  same  array.  The  forces  were  drawn  up  in  two 
lines,  the  cavalry  on  the  two  wings,and  the  infantry  in  the  mid 
die  ;  the  one  and  the  other  being  under  the  particular  conduct  of 
the  chiefs  of  each  of  the  different  nations  that  composed  them 
and  commanded,  in  general,  by  the  principal  crown  officers. 

tfb2 


I 


2911 


THE  HISTORY 


The  front  of  the  battle  (under  Darius)  was  covered  with  twc 
hundred  chariots,  armed  with  scythes,  and  with  fifteen  elephants  ; 
that  king  taking  his  post  in  the  centre  of  the  first  fine.  Besides  the 
guards,  which  were  the  flower  of  his  forces,  he  had  fortified  him- 
self also  with  the  Grecian  infantry,  whom  he  had  drawn  up  near  his 
person,  befievingthis  body,  only,  capable  of  opposing  the  Macedo- 
nian phalanx.  As  his  army  spread  over  a  much  greater  space  of 
ground,  than  that  of  the  enemy,  he  intended  to  surround  and  to 
charge  them,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  both  in  front  and  flank ; 
which,  from  Alexander's  disposition,  he  soon  after  found  im 
possible. 

Darius,  fearing  lest  the  Macedonians  should  draw  him  from  th« 
spot  of  ground  he  had  levelled,  and  carry  him  into  another  that 
was  rough  and  uneven,  commanded  the  cavalry  in  his  left  wing^ 
which  spread  much  farther  than  that  of  the  enemy's  right,  to 
march  directly  forward,  and  wheel  about  upon  the  Macedonians, 
in  flank,  to  prevent  them  from  extending  their  troops  farther. 
Upon  which,  Alexander  despatched  against  them  the  body  of 
horse  in  his  service,  commanded  by  Menidas  ;  but,  as  these  were 
not  able  to  make  head  against  the  enemy,  because  of  their  pro- 
digious numbers,  he  reinforced  them  with  the  Paeonians,  whom 
Aretas  commanded,  and  with  the  foreign  cavalry. 

Besides  the  advantage  of  numbers,  the  Persians  had  also  ot 
coats  of  mail,  which  secured  themselves,  and  their  horses  much 
more  ;  and  by  which  Alexander's  cavalry  was  very  severely  an- 
noyed. However,  the  Macedonians  marched  to  the  charge  with 
great  bravery,  and  at  last  put  the  enemy  to  flight.  Upon  this,  the 
Persians  opposed  the  chariots  armed  with  scythes,  against  the  Ma 
cedonian  phalanx,  in  order  to  break  it  ;  but  with  little  success. 
The  noise  made  by  the  soldiers,  who  were  lightly  armed,  bj 
striking  their  swords  against  their  bucklers,  and  the  arrows  whicfc 
flew  on  all  sides,  frightened  the  horses,  and  made  a  great  number 
of  them" turn  back  against  their  own  troops.  Others,  laying  hold 
of  the  horses'  bridles,  pulled  the  riders  down,  and  cut  them  to 
pieces.  Part  of  the  chariots  drove  between  the  battalions,  which 
opened,  to  make  way  for  them,  as  they  had  been  ordered  ;  by 
which  means,  they  did  little  or  no  execution. 

Alexander,  seeing  Darins  set  his  whole  army  in  motion,  in  or- 
der to  chai^  him,  employed  a  stratagem,  to  encourage  his  sol- 
diers. When  the  battle  was  at  the  hottest,  and  the  Macedonians 
were  in  the  greatest  danger,  Aristander,  the  soothsayer,  clothed 
in  his  white  robes,  holding  a  branch  of  laurel  in  his  hand,  ad- 
vances among  the  combatants,  as  he  had  been  instructed  by  the 
king ;  and,  crying,  that  he  saw  an  eagle  hovering  over  Alexander's 
head,  (a  sure  omen  of  victory)  he  showed  with  his  finger,  the 
pretended  bird  to  the  soldiers  ;  who,  relviivjjiro'^  the  sincerity  of 


"WT 


TJI*  . 


% 


GREECE. 


293 


the  soothsayer,  fancied  they  also  saw  it :  and  thereupon  renewed 
the  attack,  with  greater  cheerfulness  and  ardour,  than  ever. 

Alexander  now  pressed  to  the  place  in  which  Darius  was  sta- 
tioned ;  and  the  presence  of  the  two  opposing  kings  inspired  both 
sides  with  vigour.  Darius  was  mounted  on  a  chariot,  and  Alex 
ander  on  horseback  ;  both  surrounded  by  their  bravest  oflicers 
and  soldiers,  whose  only  endeavours  were  to  save  the  lives  of 
their  respective  princes,  at  the  hazard  of  their  own.  The  battle 
was  obstinate  and  bloody.  Alexander,  having  wounded  Darius' 
equerry  with  a  javelin,  the  Persians  as  well  as  Macedonians, 
imagined  that  the  king  was  killed  ;  upon  which,  the  former, 
breaking  aloud  into  the  most  dismal  sounds,  the  whole  army  was 
seized  with  the  greatest  consternation. 

The  relations  of  Darius,  who  were  at  his  left  hand,  fled  away 
with  the  guards,  and  so  abandoned  the  chariot ;  but  those  who 
were  at  his  right,  took  him  into  the  centre  of  their  body.  His-  * 
torians  relate,  that  this  prince  having  drawn  his  scimitar,  reflect- 
ed whether  he  ought  not  to  lay  violent  hands  upon  himself,  rather 
than  fly  in  an  ignominious  manner.  But,  perceiving  from  his 
chariot,  th.-it  his  soldiers  still  fought,  he  was  ashamed  to  forsake 
them  ;  and,  as  divided  between  hope  and  despair,  the  Persians 
retired  insensibly,  and  thinned  their  ranks,  when  it  could  no  longer 
be  called  a  battle,  but  a  slaughter.  Then,  Darius  turning  about 
his  chariot,  fled  with  the  rest ;  and  the  conqueror  was  now 
wholly  employed  in  pursuing  him. 

But,  in  the  mean  time,  finding  that  the  left  wing  of  his  army, 
commanded  by  Parmenio,  was  in  great  danger,  Alexander  was 
obli<5ed  to  desist  from  pursuing  Darius,  whom  he  had  almost  over- 
taken, and  wheeled  round  to  attack  the  Persian  horse,  which,  after 
plundering  the  camp,  were  retiring  in  good  order  :  them,  he  cut  in 
pieces  ;  and  the  scale  of  battle  turning  in  favour  of  the  Macedoni- 
ans, a  total  rout  of  the  Persians  ensued.  The  pursuit  was  warm,  ' 
and  the  slaughter  amazing.  Alexander  rode  as  far  as  Arbela,  after 
Darius  :  every  moment  hoping  to  overtake  him  :  he  had  just  pass- 
ed through,  when  Alexander  arrived  ;  but  he  left  his  treasure, 
with  his  bow  and  shield,  as  a  prey  to  the  enemy. 

Such,  was  the  success  of  this  famous  battle,  which  gave  em- 
pire to  the  conqueror.  According  to  Arrian,  the  Persians  lost 
three  hundred  thousand  men,  besides  those  who  were  taken 
prisoners  ;  which,  at  least,  is  a  proof  that  the  loss  was  very  great 
on  their  side.  That  of  Alexander  was  very  inconsiderable  ;  not 
having  lost,  according  to  the  last  mentioned  author,  above  twelve 
hundred  men,  most  of  whom  were  horse.  This  engagement  was 
fought  in  the  month  of  October,  about  the  same  time  that,  iwo 
years  before,  the  battle  of  Issus  was  fought.  As  Guagamela,  io 
Assyria,  the  snot  where  the  two  armies  engaged,  was  a  smali 


QF  GREECE. 


295 


891 


THE  HISTORY 


place,  of  very  little  note,  this  was  called  the  battle  of  Arbela 
that  city  being  nearest  to  the  field  of  battle. 

Darius,  after  this  dreadful  defeat,  rode  towards  the  river  Lycus, 
with  a  very  few  Httendtints.  He  was  advised  to  break  down  the 
bridges,  to  secure  his  retreat ;  but  he  refused,  saying,  he  woult' 
not  save  his  life,  at  the  expense  of  thousands  of  his  subjects.  Aftei 
riding  a  great  number  of  miles,  full  speed,  he  arrived,  at  midnight 
at  Arbela  ;  from  thence,  he  fled  towards  Media,  over  the  Arme 
nian  mountains,  followed  by  his  satraps,  and  a  few  of  his  guards 
expecting  the  worst,  despairing  of  fortune,  a  wretched  survivoi 
of  his  country's  ruin. 

In  the  mean  time,  Alexander  approached  near  Babylon,  and 
Mazaeus,  the  governor,  who  had  retired  thither  after  the  battle  of 
Arbela.  surrendered  to  him,  without  striking  a  blow.  Alexander, 
therefore,  entered  the  city,  at  the  head  of  his  whole  army,  as  if  he 
had  been  marching  to  a  battle.  The  walls  of  Babylon  were  lined 
with  people,  notwithstanding  the  greater  part  of  the  citizens  had 
gone  out  before,  from  the  impatient  desire  that  they  had  to  see 
th%ir  new  sovereign;  whose  renown  had  far  outstripped  his  march. 

Bagophanes,  governor  of  the  fortress,  and  guardian  of  the  trea- 
sure, unwilling  to  discover  less  zeal  than  Mazaeus,  strewed  the 
streets  with  flowers,  and  raised,  on  both  sides  of  the  way,  silver 
altars,  which  smoked,  not  only  with  frankincense,  but  the  most 
fragrant  perfumes  of  every  kind.  L^st  of  all,  came  the  presents 
which  were  to  be  made  to  the  king ;  consisting  of  herds  of  Ctittle, 
and  a  great  number  of  horses,  as  also  lions  and  panthers,  which 
were  carried  in  cages.  After  these,  the  Magi  walked,  singing 
hymns,  after  the  manner  of  their  country  ;  then,  the  Chaldeans, 
accompanied  by  the  Babylonish  soothsayers  and  musicians. 

The  rear  was  brought  up  by  the  Babylonish  cavalry  ;  of  which, 
both  men  and  horses  were  so  sumptuous,  that  imagination  can 
scarcely  reach  their  magnificence.  The  king  caused  the  people 
to  walk  after  the  infantry,  and  he  himself,  surrounded  by  his 
guards,  and  seated  on  a  chariot,  entered  the  city,  and  thence  rode 
to  the  palace,  as  in  a  kind  of  triumph.  The  next  day,  he  took 
a  view  of  all  Darius*  money  and  moveables,  which  amounted  to 
mcredible  sums,  and  which  he  distributed  with  generosity  among 
his  soldiers.  He  gave  the  government  of  the  province  to  MazaBus; 
and  the  command  of  the  forces  which  he  left  there,  to  Apollo- 
dorus  of  Amphipolis. 

From  Babylon,  Alexander  marched  to  the  province  of  Syra- 
ceni,  afterwards  to  Susa,  where  he  arrived,  after  a  march  of 
twenty  days,  and  found  treasures  to  an  infinite  amount.  These 
also  he  applied  to  the  purpose  of  rewarding  merit  and  courage 
among  his  troops.  In  this  city,  he  left  the  mother  and  children 
tff  Darius  ;  and  from  thence  he  went  forward  till  he  came  to  a 


river  called  Pasitigris.  Having  crossed  it,  with  nine  thousand 
foot,  and  three  thousand  horse,  consisting  of  Agrians,  as  well  as 
of  Grecian  mercenaries,  and  a  reinforcement  of  three  thouannc^i 
Thracians,  he  entered  the  country  of  Uxii.  This  region  lies  ireai 
Susa,  and  extends  to  the  frontiers  of  Persia,  a  narrow  pass  onlj 
lying  between  it  and  Susiana.  Madathes  commanded  this  prov 
inco.  He  was  not  a  time-server,  nor  a  follower  of  fortune,  bn 
faithful  to  his  sovereign :  he  resolved  to  hold  out  to  the  last  ex 
tremity  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  had  withdrawn  into  his  own  city, 
which  stood  in  the  midst  of  craggy  rocks,  and  was  surrounded 
with  precipices.  Having  been  forced  from  thence,  he  retired  into 
the  citadel,  whence  the  besieged  sent  thirty  deputies  to  Alexan- 
der, to  sue  for  quarter ;  which  they  obtained,  at  last,  by  the  in- 
terposition  of  Sysigaipbis. 

The  king  not  only  pardoned  Madathes,  who  was  a  near  rela- 
tion of  that  princess,  but  likewise  set  at  liberty  all  the  captives, 
and  those  who  had  surrendered  themselves,  permitted  them  to 
enjoy  their  several  rights  and  privileges,  would  not  suffer  the  city 
to  be  plundered,  but  let  them  plough  their  lands,  without  paying 
any  tribute.  Froni  thence,he  proceeded  to  the  pass  of  Susa,  de- 
fended by  mountains  almost  inaccessible,  and  by  Ariobarzanes, 
with  a  body  of  five  thousand  men  :  he  there  stopped  for  a  while, 
but  being  led  by  a  different  route  among  the  mountains,  he  came 
over  the  pass,  and  so  cut  the  army  that  defended  it  in  pieces. 

Alexander,  from  an  effect  of  the  good  fortune  which  constantly 
attended  him  in  all  his  undertakings,  having  extricated  himself 
happily  out  of  the  danger  to  which  he  was  so  lately  exposed, 
marched  immediately  towards  Persia.  Being  on  the  road,  he  re- 
ceived letters  from  Tiridates,  governor  of  Persepolis,  in  which 
he  informed  him,  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  upon  the  re-.* 
port  of  his  advancing  towards  them,  were  determined  to  plunder 
Darius'  treasures,  with  which  he  was  entrusted,  and  therefore 
that  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  make  all  the  haste  imaginable 
to  seize  them  himself;  that  he  had  only  the  Araxes  to  cross, 
after  which  the  road  was  smooth  and  easy. 

Alexander,  upon  this  news,  leaving  his  infantry  behind,  march- 
od  the  whole  night,  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  who  were  very 
much  harassed  by  the  length  and  swiftness  of  his  march,  and 
passed  the  Araxes  on  a  bridge,  which,  by  his  order,  had  been 
built  some  days  before.  But,  as  he  drew  near  the  city,  he  per- 
ceived a  large  body  of  men,  who  exhibited  a  memorable  exam- 
ple of  the  greatest  misery.  These  were  about  four  thousana 
Greeks,  very  far  advanced  in  years,  who  having  been  made 
prisoners  of  war,  had  suffered  all  the  torments  which  the  Persian 
hrranny  could  inflict.  The  hands  of  some  had  been  cut  off,  th« 
feet  of  others ;  and  others  again  had  lost  their  noses  ana  ear» 


206 


THE  HISTORY 


They  appeared  like  so  many  shadows,  rather  than  like  mei\ 
speech  being  almost  the  only  thing  by  which  they  were  known 
to  be  such.  Alexander  could  not  refrain  from  tears,  at  this  sight ; 
and,  as  they  irresistibly  brought  him  to  commiserate  their  con- 
dition,  he  bade  them,  with  the  utmost  tenderness,  not  to  despond ; 
and  assured  them,  that  they  should  again  see  their  wives  and 
country.  They  chose,  however,  to  remain  in  a  place  where 
misfortune  now  became  habitual ;  wherefore,  he  rewarded  them 
liberally  for  their  suflferings,  and  commanded  the  governor  of  the 
province  to  treat  them  with  mildness  and  respect. 

The  day  following,  he  entered  the  city  of  Persepolis,  at  the 
head  of  his  victorious  soldiers  ;  who,  though  the  inhabitants  niade 
no  resistance,  began  to  cut  in  pieces  all  those  who  still  remained 
fi  the  city.  However,  the  king  soon  put  an  end  to  the  massacre, 
and  forbade  his  soldiers  to  offer  further  violence.  The  riches  he 
had  found  in  other  places,  were  but  trifling,  when  compared  to 
those  he  found  here.  This  however  did  not  save  the  city.  Being 
one  day  at  a  banquet  among  his  friends,  and  happening  to  drink 
to  excess,  the  conversation  ran  upon  the  various  cruelties  exer- 
cised by  the  Persians  in  Greece,  particularly  at  Athens.  Thais, 
an  Athenian  courtesan,  urged  the  pusillanimity  of  not  taking  re- 
venge for  such  repeated  slaughters.  All  the  guests  applauded  the 
discourse ;  when  immediately  the  king  rose  from  table,  This  head 
oeing  crowned  with  flowers)  and,  taking  a  torch  in  his  hand,  he 
advanced  forward,  to  execute  his  mad  exploit.  The  whole  com- 
pany followed  him,  breaking  into  loud  acclamations,  and,  after 
singing  and  dancins;,  surrounded  the  palace.  All  the  rest  of  the 
Macedonians,  at  this  noise,  ran  in  crowds,  with  lighted  torches, 
and  set  fire  to  every  part  of  the  city.  However,  Alexander  was 
sorry,  not  long  afterwards,  for  what  he  had  done  ;  and  thereupon 
gave  orders  for  extinguishing  the  fire  :  but  it  was  too  late. 

While  Alexander  was  thus  triumphing  in  all  the  exultation  of 
success,  the  wretched  Darius  had  arrived  at  Ecbatana,  the  capital 
of  Media.  There  remained  still  with  this  fugitive  prince,  thirty 
thousand  foot ;  among  whom,  were  four  thousand  Greeks,  who 
were  faithful  to  him  to  the  last :  besides  these,  he  had  four  thou- 
sand slingers,  ai.d  upwards  of  three  thousand  Bactrian  horse, 
whom  Bessus,  their  governor,  commanded. 

Darius,  even  with  so  small  a  force,  still  conceived  hopes  of 
opposing  his  rival ;  or  at  least  of  protracting  the  war.  But  he 
was  surrounded  by  traitors  ;  his  want  of  success  had  turned  all 
riinnkind  against  him  ;  and  Nabarzanes,  one  of  the  greatest  lords 
of  Persia,  and  general  of  the  horse,  had  conspired  with  Bessus 
general  of  the  Bactrians,  to  commit  the  blackest  of  all  crimes, 
AwX  that  was,  to  seize  upon  the  person  of  the  king,  and  lay  him 
ID  chains,  which  they  might  easily  do,  as  each  of  them  had  a  great 


OF  GREECE. 


297 


number  of  soldiers  under  his  command.  Their  design  was,  if 
Alexander  should  pursue  them,  to  secure  themselves,  by  giving 
up  Darius  alive  into  his  hands ;  and,  in  case  they  escaped,  to 
murder  that  prince,  and  afterwards  usurp  his  crown,  and  begin 
a  new  war.  The  traitors  soon  won  over  the  troops,  by  repre- 
senting to  them  that  they  were  going  to  their  destruction  ;  that 
they  would  soon  be  crushed  under  the  ruins  of  an  empire,  which  ' 
Wiis  ready  to  fall ;  at  the  same  time,  that  Bactriana  was  open  to 
them  and  offered  them  immense  riches.  These  promises  soon 
prevailed  upon  the  perfidious  army:  the  traitors  seized  and 
Isound  their  monarch  in  chains  of  gold,  under  the  appearance  of 
honour,  as  he  was  a  king ;  then  enclosing  him  in  a  covered 
chariot,  they  set  out  towards  Bactriaua. 

in  this  manner,  they  carried  him,  with  the  utmost  despatch, 
until  being  informed  that  the  Grecian  army  was  still  hotly  pur- 
suing them,  they  found  it  impossible  either  to  conciliate  the  friend- 
ship of  Alexander,  or  to  secure  a  throne  for  themselves :  they 
therefore,  once  more,  gave  Darius  his  liberty,  and  desired  him 
to  make  the  best  of  his  escape  with  them  from  the  conqueror ; 
but  he  replied,  that  the  gods  were  ready  to  revenge  the  evils  he 
had  already  suffered ;  and,  appealing  to  Alexander  for  justice, 
refused  to  follow  a  band  of  traitors.  At  these  words,  they  fell 
into  the  utmost  fury,  thrusting  him  with  their  darts  and  their 
spears,  and  left  him  to  linger  in  this  manner,  unattended,  the 
remains  of  his  wretched  life. 

The  traitors  then  made  their  escape  by  different  ways;  while 
the  victorious  Macedonians  at  length  coming  up,  found  Darius  in 
a  solitude,  lying  in  his  chariot,  and  drawing  near  his  end.  How- 
ever, he  had  strength  enough,  before  he  died,  to  call  for  drink, 
which  a  Macedonian,  Polystratus  by  name,  brought  him.  He 
had  a  Persian  prisoner,  whom  he  employed  as  his  interpreter 
Darius,  after  drinking  what  had  been  given  him,  turned  to  the 
Macedonian,  and  said,  that,  in  the  deplorable  state  to  which  he 
was  reduced,  he  however  should  have  the  comfort  to  speak  to  one 
who  could  understand  him,  and  that  his  last  words  would  not  be 
losL  He  therefc re  charged  him  to  tell  Alexander,  that  he  had  died 
in  his  debt,  that  he  gave  him  many  thanks  for  the  great  humanity 
he  had  exercised  towards  his  mother,  his  wife,  and  his  children, 
whose  lives  he  had  not  only  spared,  but  had  restored  them  to 
their  former  splendour ;  that  he  besought  the  gods  to  give  vie 
tory  to  his  arms,  and  make  him  monarch  of  the  universe ;  that  he 
thought  he  need  not  intreat  him  to  revenge  the  execrable  murder 
committed  on  his  person,  as  this  was  the  common  cause  of  kings. 

After  this,  taking  Polystratus  by  the  hand,  "Give  him,'*  said 
he,  "  thy  hand,  as  I  give  thee  mine  :  and^carry  him,  in  my  name, 
the  only  pledge  1  am  able  to  give,  of  my  gratitude  and  aflcctions/ 


jd9d 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


299 


Saying  these  words,  he  hreathed  his  last.  Alexander  coming  ap  a 
moment  after,  and  seeing  Darius*  bofly,  he  wept  bitterly  ;  and, 
by  the  strongest  testimonies  of  affection  that  could  be  given, 
proved  how  intimately  he  was  affected  with  the  unhappiness  of 
a  prince  who  deserved  a  better  fate. 

He  immediately  pulled  off  his  military  cloak,  and  threw  it  on 
Darius'  body :  then,  causing  it  to  be  embalmed,  and  his  coffin 
to  be  adorned  with  royal  magnificence,  he  sent  it  to  Sysigambis, 
to  be  interred  with  the  honours  usually  paid  to  the  deceased  Per- 
sian monarchs,  and  entombed  with  his  ancestors.  Thus,  died 
Darius,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age  :  six  of  which  he  reigned 
with  felicity.  In  him,  the  Persian  empire  ended,  after  having 
existed,  from  the  time  of  its  founder,  Cyrus  the  Great,  a  period 
of  two  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years. 

CHAPTER  XV. 
From  the  Death  of  Darius,  to  the  Death  of  Alexander. 

The  death  of  Darius  served  only  to  inflame  the  spirit  of  jim 
bition  in  Alexander,  to  pursue  further  conquests.     After  having 
in  vain  attempted  to  follow  Bessus,  who  now  assumed  the  name 
of  king,  he  desisted,  in  order  to  cross  Parthia ;  and,  in  three  days, 
arrived  on  the  frontiers  of  Hyrcania,  which  submitted  to  his  arms. 
He  afterwards  subdued  the  Mardii,  the  Arii,  the  Drangai,  the 
Arichosii,  and  several  other  nations  ;   into  whose  countries,  his 
army  marched  with  greater  speed  than  people  generally  travel 
He  frequently  pursued  an  enemy  for  whole  days  and  nights  to- 
gether ;  almost  without  suffering  his  troops  to  take  any  rest.    By 
this  prodigious  rapidity,  he  came  unawares  upon  .lations  who 
thought  him  at  a  great  distance ;  and  subdued  them,  before  thev , 
had  time  to  put  themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence. 

It  was  upon  one  of  these  excursions,  that  Thalestris,  queen  of 
the  Amazons,  came  to  pay  him  a  visit.  A  violent  desire  of  see- 
ing Alexander,  had  prompted  that  princess  to  leave  her  domirj- 
ions,  and  travel  through  a  great  number  of  countries,  to  gratify 
her  curiosity.  Having  come  pretty  near  his  camp,  she  sent  word 
that  n  queen  was  come  to  visit  him  ;  and  that  she  had  a  prodi- 
gious inclination  to  cultivate  his  acquaintance.  Alexander  having 
relumed  a  favourable  answer,  she  commanded  her  train  to  stop, 
and  came  forward  herself,  with  three  hundred  women  ;  and,  the 
moment  she  perceived  the  king,  she  leapt  from  her  horse,  hav- 
ing two  lances  in  her  right  hand. 

She  looked  upon  the  king  without  discovering  the  least  sign 
of  admiration  ;  and,  surveying  him  attentively,  did  not  think  his 
ftature  correspondent  to  his  fame  ;  for  the  barbariang  are  very 


much  struck  with  a  majestic  air ;  and  think  those  only  capable 
of  mighty  achievements,  on  whom  nature  has  bestowed  bodily 
advantages.  She  did  not  scruple  to  tell  him,  that  the  chief  mo- 
tive of  her  journey,  was  to  have  posterity  by  him  ;  adding,  that 
she  was  worthy  of  giving  heirs  to  his  empire.  Alexander,  upon 
this  request,  was  obliged  to  make  some  stay  in  this  place  ;  after 
which,  Thalestris  returned  to  her  kingdom,  and  the  king  into  the 
prjvince  inhabited  by  the  Parthians. 

Alexander,  now  enjoying  a  little  repose,  abandoned  himself  to 
sensuality ;  and  he  whom  the  arms  of  the  Persians  could  not 
conquer,  fell  a  victim  to  their  vices.  Nothing  was  now  to  be 
seen,  but  games,  parties  of  pleasure,  women,  and  excessive  feast- 
ing; in  which,  he  used  to  revel  whole  days  and  nights.  Not 
satisfied  with  the  buffoons,  and  the  performers  on  instrumental 
music,  whom  he  had  brought  with  him  out  of  Greece,  he  obliged 
the  captive  women,  whom  he  carried  along  with  him,  to  sing 
songs,  after  the  manner  of  their  country. 

He  happened,  among  these  women  to  perceive  one  who  ap- 
peared in  deeper  afiliction  than  the  rest ;  and  who,  by  a  modest, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  a  noble  confusion,  discovered  a  greater 
reluctance  than  the  others,  to  appear  in  public.  She  was  a  per- 
fect beauty,  which  was  very  much  heightened  by  her  bashful- 
ness  ;  whilst  she  threw  her  eyes  to  the  ground,  and  did  all  in  her 
power  to  conceal  her  face.  The  king  soon  imagined,  by  her  air 
and  mien,  that  she  was  not  of  vulgar  birth,  and,  inquiring  him- 
self into  it,  the  lady  answered,  *'  That  she  was  grand-daughter  to 
Ochus,  who  not  long  before  had  swayed  the  Persian  sceptre,  ana 
daughter  of  his  son  ;  that  she  had  married  Hystaspes,  who  was 
related  to  Darius,  and  general  of  a  great  army." 

Alexander,  being  touched  with  compassion,  when  he  heard  the 
nnhappy  fate  of  a  princess  of  the  blood  royal,  and  the  sad  con- 
dition to  which  she  was  reduced,  not  only  gave  her  liberty,  but 
returned  all  her  possessions  ;  and  caused  her  husband  to  besought 
for,  in  order  that  she  might  be  restored  to  him. 

But  now  the  veteran  soldiers,  who  had  fought  under  Philip, 
not  having  the  least  idea  of  sensuality ,  inveighed  publicly  against 
the  prodigious  luxury,  and  the  numerous  vices,  which  the  army 
had  learnt  in  Susa  and  Ecbatana.  The  king,  therefore,  though; 
that  the  safest  remedy  would  be  to  employ  them,  and,  for  tha» 
purpose,  led  them  to  Bessus.  But,  as  the  army  was  encumbered 
with  booty,  and  a  useless  train  of  baggage,  so  that  it  could  scarcely 
move,  he  first  caused  all  his  own  baggage  to  be  carried  into  the 
great  square,  and  afterwards  that  of  his  army  (such  things  ex 
cepted  as  were  absolutely  necessary  ;)  then,  ordered  the  whole 
to  be  carried  from  thence,  in  carts,  to  a  large  plain.  Every  one 
was  in  great  pain  to  knew  the  meaning  of  all  this  ;  but,  at\er  b« 

Cc 


300 


THE  HISTORy 


OF  GRKECE. 


301 


had  sent  away  the  horses,  he  himself  set  fire  to  his  own  things 
and  commanded  every  one  to  follow  his  example. 

Hitherto,  we  have  seen  Alexander  triumphing,  by  a  course  of 
virtue.    We  are  now  to  behold  him  swollen  up  by  success,  spoiled 
by  flattery,  and  enervated  by  vices  ;  exhibiting  a  very  doubtful 
character,  and  mixing  the  tyrant  with  the  hero.     A  conspiracy 
w.is  formed  against  him,  by  one  Dymnus  ;  this  was  communicated 
by  a  Macedonian  soldier,  to  Philotas,  one  of  Alexander's  favour 
ites.     Philotas  neglected  divulging  it  to  his  master  ;  and  thus  be 
came  suspected  himself,  as  being  concerned  in  the  conspiracy 
J*armenio,  also,  the  father  of  this  young  favourite,  became  equal 
ly  obnoxious  ;  and,  as  the  suspicion  of  tyrants  is  equally  fatai 
with  a  conviction,  Alexander  doomed  both  to  destruction. 

in  the  beginning  of  the  night,  various  parties  of  guards  having 
been  posted  in  the  several  places  necessary,  some  entered  the 
lent  of  Philotas,  who  was  then  in  a  deep  sleep  j  when,  starting  from 
his  slumbers,  as  they  were  putting  manacles  on  his  hand,  he  cried, 
**  Alas !  my  sovereign,  the  inveteracy  of  my  enemies,  has  got  the 
better  of  your  goodness."  After  this,  they  covered  his  face,  and 
brought  him  to  the  palace,  without  uttering  a  single  word.  His 
hands  were  tied  behind  him,  and  his  head  covered  with  a  coarse 
worn  out  piece  of  cloth.  Lost  to  himself,  he  did  not  dare  to 
look  up,  or  open  his  lips  ;  but  the  tears  streaming  from  his  eyes, 
he  fainted  away,  in  the  arms  of  the  man  who  held  him.  As  the 
Btanders-by  wiped  off  the  tears  in  which  his  face  was  bathed, 
recovering  his  speech  and  his  voice  by  insensible  degrees,  he 
seemed  desirous  of  speaking. 

The  result  of  this  interview  was,  that  Philotas  should  be  put 
to  the  rack.  The  persons  who  presided  on  that  occasion,  were 
bis  most  inve  erate  enemies,  and  they  made  him  suffer  every  kind 
of  torture.  P  lilotas  at  first  discovered  the  utmost  resolution  and 
strength  of  n  -nd  ;  the  torments  which  he  suffered  not  being  able 
to  force  from  him  a  single  word,  nor  even  so  much  as  a  sigh. 
But,  at  last,  conquered  by  pain,  he  confessed  himself  to  be  guilty, 
named  several  accomplices,  and  even  accused  his  own  father. 
The  next,  day,  the  answers  of  Philotas  were  read  in  full  assem- 
bly, he.  himself  being  present.  Upon  the  whole,  he  was  unani- 
mously sentenced  to  die ;  immediately  after  which,  he  was 
ftoned,  according  to  the  custom  of  Macedonia,  with  some  others 
of  the  conspirators. 

The  condemnation  of  Philotas  brought  on  that  of  Parmenio ; 
whether  it  were  that  Alexander  really  believed  him  guilty,  or 
was  afraid  of  the  father,  now  he  had  put  to  death  the  son.  Poly- 
damus,  one  of  the  lords  of  the  court,  was  appointed  to  see  the 
execution  performed  He  had  been  one  of  Parmenio's  most  in- 
timate friends,  if  we  nwy  give  that  name  to  courtiers,  w\tO  attend 


only  to  their  own  fortunes.  This  was  the  veiy  reason  of  his  being 
nommaied,  because  no  one  could  suspect  that  he  was  sent  with 
any  such  orders  against  Parmenio.  He  therefore  set  out  for  Me- 
dia, where  that  general  commanded  the  army,  and  was  entrusted 
with  the  king's  treasure,  which  amounted  to  a  hundred  and  four 
score  thousand  talents,  about  twenty-seven  millions  sterling 
Alexander  had  given  him  several  letters  for  Cleandcr,  the  king's 
lieutenant  in  the  province ;  and  for  the  principal  officers.  Two 
were  for  Parmenio ;  one  of  them  from  Alexander,  and  the  other 
sealed  with  Philotas'  seal,  as  if  he  had  been  alive,  to  prevent 
the  father  from  harbouring  the  least  suspicion. 

Polydamus  was  but  eleven  days  on  his  journey,  and  alighted 
in  the  night  at  Oleander's.  After  having  taken  all  the  precautions 
necessary,  they  went  together,  with  a  great  number  of  attendants, 
to  meet  Parmenio,  who  at  this  time  was  walking  in  his  own  park. 
The  moment  Polydamus  espied  him,  though  at  a  great  distance, 
he  ran  to  embrace  him,  with  an  air  of  the  utmost  joy  ;  and,  after 
compliments,  intermixed  with  the  strongest  indications  of  friend- 
hip,  had  passed,  on  both  sides,  he  gave  him  Alexander's  letter, 
A'hich  opening,  and  afterwards  that  under  the  name  of  Philotas 
ie  seemed  pleased  with  the  contents. 

At  that  very  instant,  Cleander  thrust  a  da^er  into  his  side, 
then  made  another  thrust  into  his  throat ;  and  the  rest  gave  him 
several  wounds,  even  after  he  was  dead.  He  was,  at  the  time  of 
his  death,  seventy  years  of  age,  and  had  served  his  master  witti 
a  fidelity  and  zeal,  which,  in  the  end,  was  very  ill  rewarded. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  ill  consequences  that  might  arise  from 
the  contemplation  of  these  cruelties,  Alexander  set  out  upon  his 
march,  and  continued  to  pursue  Bessus  ;  upon  which  occasion  ho 
exposed  himself  to  great  hardships  and  dangers.  Bessus,  how- 
ever, was  treated  by  his  followers  in  the  same  manner  he  had 
treated  the  king  his  master.  Spitamenes,  his  chief  confidant,  hav- 
ing formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  seized  his  person,  put  him 
in  chains,  forced  the  royal  robes  from  his  back ;  and,  with  a 
chain  round  his  neck,  he  was  delivered  up,  in  the  most  igno- 
minious  manner,  to  Alexander. 

The  king  caused  this  man  to  be  treated  with  his  usual  cruelty. 
After  reproaching  him  for  his  treachery,  and  causing  his  nose 
and  ears  to  be  cut  off,  he  sent  him  to  Ecbatana,  there  to  suffer 
whatever  punishment  Darius'  mother  should  think  proper  to  m- 
flict  upon  him.  Four  frees  were  bent  by  main  force,  one  towards 
the  other,  and  to  each  of  these  trees  one  of  the  limbs  of  the  tiai- 
tor's  body  was  fostened.  Afterwards,  the  trees  being  allowed  to 
return  to  their  natural  position,  they  flew  back,  with  so  much 
violence,  that  each  tore  away  the  limb  that  was  fixed  to  it,  and 
w  quartered  liim 


S02 


THE  HISTORY 


OF  GREECE. 


S03 


I 


Thus,  uniting  in  his  person,  at  once  great  cruelty  and  great 
enterprise,  Alexander  still  marched  forward,  in  search  of  new 
nations  whom  he  might  subdue.  A  city  inhabited  by  the  Branchi 
he  totally  overturned,  and  massacred  all  the  inhabitants,  in  cold 
blood,  only  for  being  descended  from  some  traitorous  Greeks, 
that  had  delivered  up  the  treasures  of  a  temple  with  which  thejf 
had  been  entrusted.  He  then  advanced  to  the  river  Jaxerthes. 
where  he  received  a  wound  in  the  leg :  from  thence,  he  wtni 
forward,  and  took  the  capital  of  Sog(hana ;  where  he  receiver 
an  embassy  from  the  Scythians,  who  lived  free  and  independent 
but  now  submitted  to  him. 

He  then  marched  to  Cyropolis,  and  besieged  it.  This  was  the 
?astcity  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  had  been  built  by  Cyrus,  af- 
ter whom  it  was  called.  Having  taken  the  place,  he  abandoned 
it  to  plunder.  In  this  manner,  he  went  on,  capriciously  destroy- 
mg  some  towns,  and  building  others  ;  settling  colonies  in  some 
places,  and  laying  whole  provinces  waste,  at  his  pleasure.  Among 
nis  other  projects,  an  invasion  of  the  kingdom  of  Scythia  was  one  ; 
Dut  the  crossing  of  the  river  Jaxerthes,  was  by  no  means  an  easy 
task ;  however,  Alexander  being  always  (foremost  in  encountering 
dangers,  led  on  his  troops  across  the  stream,  which  was  verj 
rapid,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Scythians,  who  vainlj 
attempted  to  oppose  him  on  the  other  side. 

A  strong  hold,  called  Petra  Oxiani,  defended  by  a  garrison  ol 
thirty  thousand  soldiers,  with  ammunition  and  provision  for  two 
years,  was  still  considered  as  impregnable.  However,  as  diffi- 
culties seemed  only  to  excito  his  ambition,  his  soldiers  scaled  the 
cliff,  and  the  barbarians,  supposing  that  the  whole  Macedonian 
army  had  got  over  their  heads,  surrendered,  upon  condition  that 
their  Uvea  should  be  spared  ;  but  Alexander,  forgetting  the  faith 
of  treaty,  and  the  humtinity  which  became  a  soldier  on  this  oc- 
casion, caused  them  all  to  be  scourged  with  rods,  and  afterwarda 
to  be  fixed  to  crosses,  at  the  foot  of  the  same  rock. 

After  this,  having  subdued  the  Massagetaa  and  Dahse,  he  enter 
ed  the  province  of  Basaria  :  thence,  he  advanced  to  Mnrcander, 
and  appointed  Clytus  governor  of  that  province.  This  was  an 
old  officer,  who  had  fought  under  Philip,  and  signalized  himselt 
on  many  occasions.  At  the  battle  of  Granicus,  as  Alexander  wm 
fighting  bare-headed,  and  Rasaces  had  his  arm  raised  in  order  <o 
strike  him  behind,  Clytus  covered  the  king  with  his  shield,  and 
cut  off  the  barbarian's  hand.  Hallanice,  his  sister,  had  nursed 
Alexander  ;  and  he  loved  her  with  as  much  tenderness  as  if  she 
had  been  his  own  mother. 

This  favour,  however,  only  advanced  Clytus  to  a  post  of  great 
er  Clanger,  On©  evening,  at  an  entertainment,  the  king,  after 
drinking  immoderately,  began  to  celebrate  his  own  exploits  *  hit 


boasting  shocked  even  those  very  persons  who  knew  that  he  spoK« 
*  the  truth,  but  particularly  the  old  generals  of  his  army  ;  whose  ad- 
miration  were  engrossed  by  the  actions  of  his  father.  Clytus  was 
intoxicated,  and,  turning  about  to  those  who  sat  below  him  at  table, 
quoted  to  them  a  passage  from  Euripides  ;  but,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  king  could  only  hear  his  voice,  and  not  the  words  dis 

tinctly.  ,     ^      ,1,1 

The  sense  of  the  passage  was,  that  the  Greeks  had  done  very 
wi  ong,  in  ordiining,  that,  in  the  inscriptions  engraved  on  trophies, 
the  names  of  kings  only  should  be  mentioned ;  because,  by  this 
means,  brave  men  were  robbed  of  the  glory  they  had  purchased 
with  thtir  blood.  The  king,  suspecting  Clytus  had  let  drop  some 
disobliging  expressions,  asked  those  who  sat  nearest  him,  what  he 
had  said.  As  no  one  answered,  Clytus  raising  his  voice  by  degrees, 
began  to  relate  the  actions  of  Philip,  and  his  wars  in  Greece, 
preferring  them  to  whatever  was  doing  at  that  time  ;  which creat 
ed  a  great  dispute  between  the  young  and  old  men.  ^ 

Though  the  king  was  very  highly  vexed,  he  nevertheless  stifled 
his  resentment,  and  seemed  to  listen  very  patiently  to  all  that 
Clytus  spoke.  It  is  probable,  he  would  have  quite  suppressed 
his  passion,  had  Clytus  stopped  there ;  but  the  latter  growing 
more  and  more  insolent,  as  if  determined  to  exasperate  and  in- 
sult the  king,  he  went  such  lengths,  as  to  defend  Parmenio  pub- 
licly, and  to  assert  that  the  destroying  of  Thebes  was  but  trifling, 
in  comparison  with  the  victory  which  Philip  had  gained  over  the 
Athenians  ;  and  that  the  old  Macedonians,  though  sometimes  un- 
successful, were  greatly  superior  to  those  who  were  so  rash  an 

to  despise  them.  ,.       .  e 

Alexander  telling  him,  that,  in  giving  to  cowardice  the  name  of 
ill  success,  he  was  pleading  his  own  cause,  Clytus  rises  up,  with 
his  eyes  sparkling  with  wine  and  anger  ;  "  It  is  nevertheless  this 
hand  (said  he  to  him,  extending  it  at  the  same  time)  that  saved  your 
life  at  the  battle  of  Granicus.  It  is  the  blood  and  wounds  of  these 
very  Macedonians,  who  are  accused  of  cowardice,  that  raised  you 
to  this  grandeur  ;  but  the  tragical  end  of  Parm-^mo  shows  what 
leward  they  and  myself  may  expect  for  all  our  services  " 

This  last  reproach  stung  Alexander  :  however,  he  still  restrain- 
ed his  passion,  and  only  commanded  him  to  leave  the  table.  "He 
13  in  the  right  (says  Clytus,  as  he  rose  up)  not  to  bear  freebom 
men  at  his  table,  who  can  tell  only  truth.  He  will  do  well  to  pas* 
his  \\\^  among  barbarians  and  slaves  ,  who  will  be  proud  to  pay 
their  adoration  to  his  Persian  girdle,  and  his  white  robe. 

But  now  the  king,  no  longer  able  to  suppress  his  rage,  snatcheo 

a  javelin  from  one  of  his  guards,  and  would  have  killed  Clytus  on 

ihe  spot,  had  not  the  courtiers  withheld  his  arm,  and  Clytus  been 

forced,  but  with  great  difficulty,  out  of  the  hall.    However,  ti« 

•  t;c2 


9f)4 


THE  HISTORY 


i 


i 


Bl 


1L 


f 


"eturned  into  it,  that  moment,  by  another  door,  singing  with  ao 
air  of  insolence,  verses  reflecting  highly  on  the  prince  ;  who. 
seeing  the  general  near  him,  struck  him  with  his  javelin,  and 
aid  him  dead  at  his  feet,  crying  out  at  the  same  time,  *'  Go  now 
to  Philip,  to  Parmenio,  and  to  Attains." 

The  king  had  no  sooner  mnrd?red  his  faithful  servant,  than  he 
perceived  the  atrociousness  of  the  act.  He  threw  himself  upon 
the  dead  body,  forced  out  the  javelin,  and  would  have  destroyed 
himself,  had  he  not  been  prevented  by  his  guards  ;  who  seized 
and  carried  him  forcibly  to  his  own  apartment,  where  the  flattery 
and  the  persuasions  of  his  friends  at  length  served  to  alleviate  hi$ 
remorse.  In  order  to  divert  his  melancholy,  Alexander,  having 
drawn  his  army  out  of  the  garrison,  where  he  had  wintered  three 
months,  marched  towards  a  country  called  Gabana.  In  his  way, 
he  met  with  a  dreadful  storm,  in  which  his  army  sufi*ered  greatly 
From  thence,  he  went  into  the  country  of  the  Saca;,  which  he 
soon  overran,  and  laid  waste. 

Soon  after  thi^,  Axertes,  one  of  its  monarchs,  received  him  in 
his  palace,  which  was  adorned  with  barbarous  magnificence.    He 
had  a  daughter  called  Roxana,  a  young  lady  whose  exquisite 
beauty  was  heightened  by  all  the  charms  of  wit  and  good  sense. 
Alexander  found  her  charms  irresistible,  and  made  her  his  wife  . 
covering  his  passion  with  the  specious  pretence  of  uniting  the  two 
nations  in  such  bonds  as  should  improve  their  mutual  harmony,  bj 
blending  their  interests,  and  throwing  down  all  distinctions  be 
tween  the  conquerors  and  the  conquered.     This  marriage  greatly 
displeased  the  Macedonians,  and  exasperated  his  chief  courtiers 
when  it  was  seen  that  he  made  one  of  his  slaves  his  father-in-law 
But,  as,  artei   his  murdering  Clytus,  no  one  dared  to  speak  to 
him  with  freedom,  they  applauded  what  he  did  with  their  eyes 
and  countenances,  for  they  had  nothing  else  left  that  was  free. 

Alexander,  having  thus  conquered  all  the  Persian  provinces, 
now,  with  boundless  ambition,  resolved  upon  a  perilous  march  into 
India.  This  country  was  considered  as  the  richest  in  the  world, 
not  only  in  gold,  but  in  pearls  and  precious  stones,  with  which  the 
inhabitants  adorned  themselves  ;  but,  being  willing  either  to  im- 
press his  soldiers  with  an  idea  of  his  authority,  or  to  imitate  the 
arbarians  in  the  magnificence  of  their  titles,  he  wr.s  resolved  not 
only  to  be  called,  but  to  be  believed,  the  son  of  Jupiter ;  as  if  i  had 
been  possible  for  him  to  command  as  absolutely  over  the  mind, 
as  over  the  tongue ;  and  that  the  Macedonians  would  condescend 
to  fall  prostrate  and  adore  him,  after  the  Persian  manner. 

To  soothe  and  cherish  these  ridiculous  pretensions,  there  were 
not  wanting,  flatterers,  those  common  pests  of  a  court,  who  are 
mure  dangerous  to  princes,  than  the  arrows  of  their  enemies. 
But  the  Macedonians  would  not  stoop  to  this  base  adulatipi^ajaJi 


OF  GREECE. 


305 


of  them  to  a  man,  refusing  to  vary,  in  any  manner,  from  the 
customs  of  their  country. 

Among  the  number  who  disdained  to  offer  these  base  adnla- 
tions,  was  Callisthenes,  the  philosopher  ;  but  his  high  spirtt  cost 
him  his  life.  He  was  accused  of  being  privy  to  a  conspiracy 
formed  by  Hermolaus,  a  young  officer,  upon  the  life  of  the  kmg, 
and,  for  this  reason,  he  was  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  and  loaded 
with  irons  .  he  soon  found  that  he  had  no  mercy  to  expect ;  the 
most  grievous  tortures  were  inflicted  upon  him,  in  order  to  ex- 
tort a  confession  of  guilt ;  but  he  persisted  in  his  innocence  to 
the  last,  and  expired  in  the  midst  of  his  torments. 

The  kingdom  of  India,  for  which  Alexander  now  set  out,  was 
an  extensive  territory,  which  has  been  usually  divided  into  two 
parts— India  on  this  side,  and  India  on  the  other  side,  of  the 
Ganges.  All  the  Indians,  at  that  time,  were  free ;  nor  even  did 
they° adopt  the  unjust  and  cruel  custom  of  the  Greeks,  in  pur- 
chasing slaves  to  do  the  common  offices  of  life.  The  people  of 
that  country  were  then  divided  into  seven  classes.  The  first  and 
most  honourable,  though  the  smallest,  were  the  guardians  of  re- 
ligioa — the  second  and  the  greatest  was  that  of  the  husbandmen, 
wliose  only  employment  was  to  cultivate  the  ground — the  third 
was  that  of  herdsmen  and  shepherds,  who  led  the^  herds  and 
flocks  among  the  mountains — the  fourth  consisted  of  tradesmen 
and  merchants;  among  whom,  pilots  and  seamen  were  included 
—the  fifth,  was  of  soldiers,  whose  only  employment  was  war— 
the  sixth,  was  of  magistrates,  who  superintended  the  actions  ot 
others,  either  in  cities,  or  in  the  country,  and  reported  the 
whole  to  the  king — the  seventh  class  consisted  of  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  public  councils,  and  who  shared  the  cares  of  gov- 
ernment with  their  sovereign.  These  orders  of  state  never 
blended  nor  intermarried  with  each  other :  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  follow  two  professions,  at  the  same  time,  nor  f\uit  one 

class  for  another. 

Alexander  having  entered  India,  all  the  petty  kings  of  the 
country  came  to  meet  him,  and  make  their  submissions.  On  his 
march,  he  took  the  city  of  Nysa ;  he  then  proceeded  towards 
Daedala,  dispersed  his  army  over  the  whole  country,  and  took 
possession  of  it,  without  resistance.  He  afterwards  went  for- 
ward towards  the  city  of  Hagosa ;  which,  after  being  besieged 
in  form,  surrendered  at  discretion.  The  rock  of  Aoriios,  which 
was  deemed  inaccessible,  and  which  it  was  said  Hercules  him- 
self  was  not  able  to  take,  the  garrison  in  a  panic  delivered  up  to 

bis  army. 

From  thence,  he  pushed  forward  to  Acleslimus  and,  after  a 
maich  of  sixteen  days,  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  great  river 
iLdas ;  where  he  found  that  Hephaestion  had  got  all  things  readf 


3oa 


THE  HISTORY 


I 


V 


for  his  passage,  pursuant  to  the  orders  he  had  hefore  received 
Here  he  was  met  by  Ompbis,  a  king  of  the  country  ;  who  did 
homage  to  Alexander,  and  made  him  a  present  of  fifty-six  ele- 
phant?, and  other  animals  of  prodigious  size.  The  ambassa- 
dors from  Abisaries,  a  neighbouring  monarch,  came  with  the 
same  offers,  sent  presents,  and  promised  fidelity.  There  was 
still  a  third  monarch,  whose  name  was  Porus,  from  whom  Alex- 
ander expected  similar  submission  ;  he  even  weni.  to  require  it 
of  him,  but  Porus  answered,  with  great  coldness,  that  while  he 
could  fight,  he  should  disdain  to  obey. 

In  pursuance  of  this  message,  Alexander  resolved  to  enforce 
obedience  ;  and,  giving  the  superintendence  of  his  elephants  to 
Omphis,  who  had  now  changed  his  name  to  Taxilus,  he  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  borders  of  the  Hydaspes.  Porus  was  en- 
camped on  the  other  side,  in  order  to  dispute  the  passage,  and 
posted  at  the  head  of  his  army  eighty-five  elephants, of  a  pro- 
digious size,  and  behind  them  three  hundred  chariots,  guarded 
with  thirty  thousand  foot,  not  having  at  most  above  seven  thou- 
eand  horse. 

This  prince  was  mounted  upon  an  elcpliant,  of  much  larger 
size  than  any  of  the  rest ;  and  he  himself  exceeded  the  usual 
stature  of  men  ;  so  that,  clothed  in  his  armour,  glittering  with 
gold  and  silver,  he  appeared,  at  the  same  time,  terrible  and 
majestic.  The  greatness  of  his  courage  equalled  that  of  his 
stature  ;  and  he  was  as  wise  and  prudent  as  it  was  possible  ft>r 
the  monarch  of  so  barbarous  a  people. 

The  Macedonians  dreaded  not  only  the  enemy,  but  the  river 
they  were  obliged  to  pass.  It  was  four  furlongs  wide,  (about  foui 
hundred  fathoms)  and  so  deep,  in  every  part,  that  it  looked  likV 
a  sea,  and  was  no  where  fordable.  It  was  extremely  impetuous 
notwithstanding  its  great  breadth  ;  for  it  rolled  with  as  much  vio 
lence,  as  if  it  had  been  confined  to  a  narrow  channel,  and  its 
raging,  foaming  waves,  which  broke  in  many  places,  discovered 
tliat  it  was  full  of  stones  and  rocks.  However,  nothing  was  so 
dreadful,  as  the  appearance  of  the  shore,  which  was  quite 
covered  with  men,  horses,  and  elephants.  These  hideous  ani- 
mals stood  like  so  many  towers  ;  and  the  Indians  exasperated 
them,  in  order  that  their  horrid  cry  might  fill  the  enemy  with 
terror.  However,  this  could  not  intimidate  an  army  of  men, 
whose  courage  was  proof  against  all  attacks,  and  who  were  ani- 
mated oy  an  uninterrupted  series  of  prosperities  ;  yet,  they  did 
not  thmk  it  would  be  possible  for  them,  as  the  banks  were  so 
craggy,  to  surmount  the  rapidity  of  the  stream,  or  land  with 
•afety. 

Alexander  was  in  great  perplexity  with  the  difficulties  that 
attended  the  passage  of  this  large  river  •  however,  he  was  re- 


OF  GREECE. 


307 


Bolved  to  attempt  it  by  night,  and  chose  one,  the  lightning,  thun 
der,  and  impetuors  winds,  of  which,  conspired  to  drown  the 
noise  of  his  troops  in  their  embarkation.  Scarcely  any  person 
appeared,  to  oppose  their  descent ;  and  the  moment  Alexander 
was  landed,  he  drew  up,  in  order  of  battle,  the  forces  that  had 
passed  with  him,  consisting  of  six  thousand  foot,  and  five  thou- 
sand horse. 

Porus,  upon  hearing  that  Alexander  had  passed  the  river, 
nad  sent  against  him  a  detachment,  commanded  by  one  of  his 
sons,  of  two  thousand  horse  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  cha- 
riots. Alexander  imagined  them,  at  first,  to  be  the  enemy's 
vanguard,  and  that  the  main  army  was  behind  them ;  but,  being 
informed  it  was  but  a  detachment,  he  charged  them,  with  such 
vigour,  that  Porus'  son  was  killed  upon  the  spot,  with  four  hun- 
dred horse  ;  and  all  the  chariots  were  taken. 

On  receiving  advice  of  the  death  of  his  son,  the  defeat  of  the 
detachment,  and  of  Alexander's  approach,  Porus  resolved  to  go 
and  meet  Alexander,  whom  he  justly  supposed  to  be  at  the  head 
of  the  choicest  troops  of  his  army.  Accordingly,  leaving  only 
a  few  elephants  in  his  camp,  to  amuse  those  who  were  posted 
on  the  opposite  shore,  he  set  out,  with  thirty  thousand  foot,  four 
thousand  horse,  three  thousand  chariots,  and  two  hundred  ele- 
phants. Having  come  into  a  firm,  sandy  soil,  in  which  his  horses 
and  chariots  might  wheel  about  with  ease,  he  drew  up  his  army 
in  battle  array,  with  an  intent  to  wait  the  arrival  of  the  enemy. 

He  posted  in  front,  and  on  the  first  line,  all  the  elephants,  at 
a  hundred  feet  distance  from  one  another,  in  order  that  they 
might  serve  as  a  bulwark  to  his  foot,  who  were  behind.  It  was 
his  opinion,  that  the  enemy's  cavalry  would  not  dare  to  engage 
in  these  intervals,  because  of  the  fear  their  horses  would  have 
of  the  elephants  ;  and  much  less  the  infantry,  when  they  should 
see  that  of  the  enemy  posted  behind  the  elephants,  and  the  dan- 
ger of  being  trod  to  pieces.  He  had  posted  some  of  his  foot  on 
the  same  line  with  the  elephants,  in  order  to  cover  their  right 
and  left ;  and  this  infantry  was  coTered  by  his  two  wings  ot 
horse,  before  which  the  chariots  were  posted.  Such,  was  the 
order  and  disposition  of  Porus'  army. 

Alexander,  having  arrived  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  waited  the 
coming  up  of  his  foot,  which  marched  with  the  utmost  diligence, 
and  arrived  a  little  after  ;  and,  in  order  that  they  might  have 
'ime  to  take  breath,  and  not  to  be  led,  as  they  were  very  much 
fatigued,  against  the  enemy,  he  caused  his  horse  to  make  a  great 
many  evolutions,  in  order  to  gain  time.  But  now,  every  thing 
being  ready,  and  the  infantry  having  sufficiently  recovereil  their 
Vigour,  Alexander  gave  the  signal  of  battle.  He  did  not  think 
•woper  to  !>egia  by  attacking  the  enemy's  main  body,  where  tht 


3o8 


THE  HISTORY 


lufantry  anrl  the  elephants  were  posted,  for  the  very  reason  whicli 
had  made  Porus  draw  them  up  in  that  manner.    But  his  cavalrv 
oemg  stronger,  he  drew   out  the  greater  part   of  them,  and 
marching  agmnst  the  left  wing,  sent  Coenus,  with  his  ovn  regi 
ment  of  horse,  and  that  of  Demetrius,  to  charge  them,  at  the 
Siinie  time  ;  ordering  him  to  attack  the  cavalry  on  the  left,  be 
hind   dunng  which  he  himself  would  charge  them  both  in  from 
and  flank.     Seleucus,  Antigonus,  and  Tauron,  who  commander 
the  loot,  were  ordered  not  to  stir  from  their  posts  till  Alexan 
dir  s  cavalry  had  put  that  of  the  enemy,  as  well  as  their  foot 
iiilo  disorder. 

VVhen  within  arrow-shot,  he  detached  a  thousand  bow-men, 
on  horseback,  with  orders  to  make  their  discharge  on  the  horse 
ol  Porus'  left  wing,  in  order  to  throw  it  into  disorder,  whilst  he 
himself  would  charge  this  body  in  flank,  before  it  had  time  to 
rally.  The  Indians  having  again  joined  their  squadrons,  and 
drawn  them  up  into  a  narrower  compass,  advanced  against  Alex 
ander.  At  that  instant,  Ccenus  charged  them  in  the  rear,  ac- 
cording  to  the  orders  given  him,  insomuch,  that  the  Indians 
were  obliged  to  face  about  on  all  sides,  to  defend  themselves 
irom  the  thousand  bow-men,  and  against  Alexander  and  CcEnus. 

Alexander,  to  make  the  best  advantage  of  the  confusion  into 
which  the  sudden  attack  had  thrown  them,  charged,  with  great 
vigour,  those  that  made  head  against  him  ;  who,  being  no 
longer  able  to  stand  so  violent  an  attack,  were  soon  broken, 
and  retired  behind  their  elephants,  as  to  an  impregnable  ram- 
part. The  leaders  of  the  elephants  made  them  advance  against 
the  enemy's  horse ;  but,  that  very  instant,  the  Macedonian  pha- 
lanx,  moving  on  a  sudden,  surrounded  those  animals,  and 
charged,  with  their  pikes,  the  elephants  themselves,  and  the 
leaders. 

This  battle  was  very  different  from  all  those  which  Alexan 
der  had  hitherto  fought.  The  elephants,  rushing  upon  the  bat 
tahons,  broke,  with  inexpressible  fury,  the  thickest  of  them 
when  the  Indian  horse  seeing  the  Macedonian  foot  stopped  by 
the  elephants,  returned  to  the  charge  ;  however,  that  of  Alex- 
ander being  stronger,  and  having  greater  experience  in  war 
broke  this  bwly,  a  second  time,  and  obliged  it  to  retire  towards 
the  elephants  ;  upon  which,  the  Macedonian  horse,  being  all 
nnited  m  one  body,  spread  terror  and  confusion  wherever  the? 
attacked.  ^ 

The  elephants,  being  all  covered  with  wounds,  and  the 
greaier  part  having  lost  their  leaders,  did  not  observe  their  usual 
order  ;  but,  distracted,  as  it  were,  with  pain,  no  longer  distin- 
guished  friends  from  foes  ;  but,  running  about  from  place  to 
place,  they  overthrew  every  thing  that  came  in  their  way.  Tht 


OF  GREECE. 


309 


Macedonians,  who  had  purposely  left  a  greater  interval  between 
their  battalions,  either  made  way  for  them  whenever  they  came 
forward,  or  charged  with  darts,  those  that  fear  and  the  tumult 
,   obliged  to  retire. 

Alexander,  after  having  surrounded  the  enemy  with  his  horse, 
made  a  signal  to  his  foot  to  march  up,  with  all  imaginable  speed, 
in  order  to  make  a  last  effort,  and  to  fall  upon  them  with  his 
whole  force  ;  all  which  they  executed  very  successfully.  In 
this  manner,  the  greater  part  of  the  Indian  cavalry  were  cut  to 
pieces  ;  and  a  body  of  their  foot,  which  sustained  no  less  loss, 
seeing  themselves  charged  on  all  sides,  at  last  fled.  Catorus, 
who  had  continued  in  the  camp,  with  the  rest  of  the  army,  see 
ing  Alexander  engaged  with  Porus,  crossed  the  river,  and,  charg 
ing  the  routed  soldiers  with  his  troops,  who  were  cool  and  vigor- 
ous, by  that  means  killed  as  many  enemies  in  the  retreat,  as  had 
fallen  in  the  battle. 

The  Indians  lost,  on  this  occasion,  twenty  thousand  foot,  and 
three  thousand  horse ;  not  to  mention  the  chariots,  which  were 
all  broken  to  pieces  ;  and  the  elephants  that  were  either  killed 
or  taken.  Porus'  two  sons  fell  in  this  batUe ;  with  Spitacus, 
governor  of  the  province  ;  all  the  colonels  of  horse  and  foot ; 
and  those  who  guided  the  elephants  and  chariots.  As  for  Alex- 
ander, he  lost  but  four-score  of  the  six  thousand  soldiers  who 
were  at  the  first  charge  ;  ten  bow-men  of  the  horse,  twenty  of 
his  horse-guards,  and  two  hundred  common  soldiers. 

Porus,  after  having  performed  all  the  duty  both  of  a  soldier 
and  a  general,  and  fought  with  incredible  bravery,  seeing  all  his 
horse  defeated,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  foot,  did  not  behave 
like  the  great  Darius,  who,  in  a  like  disaster,  was  the  first  that 
fled  ;  en  the  contrary,  he  continued  in  the  field  as  long  as  one 
Dattalion  or  squadron  stood  their  ground  ;  but  at  last,  having  re- 
ceived a  wound  in  the  shoulder,  he  retired  upon  his  elephant 
ind  was  easily  distinguished  from  the  rest,  by  the  greatness  of 
bis  stature,  and  his  unparalleled  bravery. 

Alexander,  finding  who  he  was,  by  those  glorious  marks,  and 
being  desirous  of  saving  this  king,  sent  Tayilus  after  him,  be- 
cause he  was  of  the  same  nation.  The  latter  advanced  as  near 
Id  him  as  hecould,  without  running  any  danger  of  being  wounded 
called  out  to  him  to  stop,  in  order  to  hear  the  message  he  had 
brought  from  Alexander.  Porus  turning  back,  and  seeing  it  was 
Taxilus,  his  old  enemy,  »*  How !"  sayshe,  "  is  it  Taxilus  that 
ealls  ;  that  traitor  to  his  country  and  kingdom !"  Immediately 
Rfter  which,  he  would  have  transfixed  him  with  his  dan,  had 
he  not  instantly  retired. 

Notwithstanding  this,  Alexander  was  still  desirous  of  saving 
10  brave  a  prince ;  and  despatched  other  oflicers,  among  whooi 


310 


THE  HISTORY 


was  Meroe,  one  of  his  intimate  friends;  who  besought  him,  in  the 
strongest  terms,  to  wait  upon  a  conqueror  altogether  worthy  of 
him.  Alter  much  entreaty,  Porus  consented,  and  accordingly 
returned.  Alexander,  who  had  been  told  of  his  coming,  ad- 
vanced  forward,  in  ordei  to  receive  him,  with  some  of  his 
train.  Having  approached  pretty  near,  Alexander  stopped,pur- 
posely,to  take  a  view  of  his  stature  and  noble  mein,  he  being 
about  tive  cubits  in  height. 

Porus  did  not  seem  dejected  at  his  misfortune  ;  but  came  up 
with  a  resolute  countenance,  like  a  valiant  warrior,  whose  cou 
rage  in  defending  his  dominions,  ought  to  acquire  him  the  es- 
teem of  the  brave  prince  who  had  taken  him  prisoner.  Alex- 
ander spoke  first ;  and,  with  an  august  and  gracious  air,  asked 
him  how  he  desired  to  be  treated  ?  **  Like  a  king,"  replied  Po- 
rus :  "  But,"  continued  Alexander,  "  do  you  ask  nothing  more?" 
"  No,"  replied  Porus  ;  "  all  things  are  included  in  that  single 
word." 

Struck  with  the  greatness  of  his  soul,  the  magnanimity  of  which 
seemed  heightened  by  distress,  Alexander  not  only  restored  him 
his  kingdom,  but  annexed  other  provinces  to  it,  and  treated 
him  with  the  highest  testimonies  of  honour,  esteem,  and  friend- 
ship. Porus  was  faithful  to  him  till  his  death. — It  is  hard  to  say 
whether  the  victor  or  the  vanquished  best  deserved  praise,  on 
this  occasion. 

Alexander  built  a  city  on  the  spot  where  the  battle  had  been 
fought;  and  another  in  that  place  where  he  had  crossed  the 
river.  He  called  the  one  Nicaea,  from  his  victory  ;  and  the 
other  Bucephalus,  in  honour  of  his  horse,  who  died  there,  not  of 
his  wounds,  but  of  old  age.  After  having  paid  the  last  duties  to 
such  of  his  soldiers  as  had  lost  their  lives  in  battle,  he  solemn- 
*zed  games,  and  ofl'ered  up  sacrifices  of  thanks,  m  the  place 
where  he  had  passed  the  Hydaspes. 

Having  now  conquered  Porus,  he  advanced  into  India,  which, 
Having  never  been  a  warlike  nation,  he  subdued,  with  the  ra- 
pidity rather  of  a  traveller,  than  a  conqueror.  Numberless  petty 
states  submitted  to  him  ;  sensible  that  his  stay  would  be  short, 
and  his  conquests  evanescent. 

Alexander,  passing  near  a  city  where  several  Brachmans  or 
Indian  priests  dwelt,  was  very  desirous  to  converse  with  them, 
and  if  possible  to  prevail  with  some  of  them  to  follow  him.  Be- 
ng  informed  that  these  philosophers  never  made  visits,  but  that 
those  who  had  an  inclination  to  see  them,  must  go  to  their  houses, 
\it*  :oncluded  that  it  woul  I  be  beneath  his  dignity  to  go  to  them  ; 
an<^  not  just,  to  force  these  sages  to  any  thing  contrary  to  their 
laws  and  usages.  Onesicritus,  the  philosopher,  who  had  been  a 
di<:i:iple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic,  was  deputed  to  them.     He  met 


OF  GREECE. 


311 


not  far  from  the  city,  fifteen  Bramins,  who,  from  morning  till 
evening,  stood  always  naked,  in  the  same  posture  ^  which  they 
at  first  had  placed  themselves,  and  afterwards  returned  to  the 
city  at  night      The  chief  of  the  band  was  Mandanis.     H*^  ad- 
dressed  himself  first  to  Calanus,  an  Indian,  reputed  the  wisest 
man  of  his  country  ;  who,  though  he  professed  the  practice  of 
the  most  severe  philosophy,  had,  however,  been  persuaded,  in 
his  extreme  old  age,  to  attend  upon  the  court,  and  to  him  he  toH 
the^  occa?ion  of  his  coming.     The  latter,  gazing  upon  Onesicri 
tus   clothes  and  shoes,  could  not  forbear  laughing ;  after  which 
he  told  him,  "  That  anciently  the  earth  had  been  covered  witii 
barley  and  wheat,  as  it  was  at  that  time  with  dust ;  that,  besides 
water,  the  rivers  used  to  flow  with  milk,  honey,  oil,  and  wine. 
That  man's  guilt  had  occasioned  a  chaise  of  this  happy  condi- 
iion  ;  and  that  Jupiter,  to  punish  their   ingratitude,  had  sen 
tenced  them  to  a  long  and  painful  labour.     That  their  repent- 
ance afterwards  moving  him  to  compassion,  he  had  restored 
them  their  former  abundance  ;  however,  that,  by  the  course  of 
things,  they  seemed  to  be  returning  to  their  ancient  confusion." 
This  relation  shows  evidently,  that  these  philosophers  had  some 
notion  of  the  felicity  of  the  first  man,  and  of  the  evil  to  which 
he  had  been  sentenced,  for  his  sins. 

Onesicritus  was  very  urgent  with  both  of  them  to  quit  theii 
lustere  way  of  life,  and  follow  the  fortune  of  Alexander,  saying, 
*  That  they  would  find  in  him  a  generous  master  and  benefac-. 
lor,  who  would  heap  upon  them  honour  and  riches  of  all  kinds  " 
Then  Mandanis,  assuming  a  haughty  philosophical  tone,  an- 
swered, «*  That  he  did  not  want  Alexander,  and  was  the  son  of 
Tupiter,  as  well  as  himself.  That  he  was  exempted  from  want, 
desire,  or  fear.  That  so  long  as  he  should  live,  the  eartfe 
would  furnish  him  with  all  things  necessary  for  his  subsistence, 
Rnd  that  death  would  rid  him  of  a  troublesome  companion 
(meaning  his  body)  and  set  him  at  full  liberty. 

Calanus  appeared  more  tractable,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
opposition,  and  even  the  prohibition  of  his  superior,  who  re- 
proached him  for  his  abject  spirit,  in  stooping  so  low  as  to  serve 
another  master  besides  God,  he  followed  Onesicritus,  and  went 
to  Alexander's  court ;  who  received  him  with  great  demonstra- 
lions  of  joy. 

As  it  was  Alexander's  chief  ambition  to  imitate  Bpcchus  and 
Hercules  in  their  expeditions  into  the  East,  he  resolved,  like 
them,  to  penetrate  as  long  as  he  could  meet  new  nations  to  con- 
quer ;  however,  his  soldiers,  satiated  with  spoil,  and  fatigued 
with  repeated  encounters,  at  last  began  to  open  their  eyes  a( 
the  wildness  of  his  ambition.  Some  bewailed  their  calamities, 
in  such  terms  as  raised  compassion     others  insolently  cried  onL 

Dd  ^ 


3i2 


THE  HISTORY 


•*  That  they  would  march  no  further."  The  chiei  object  of  the 
kin<r's  wishes  was  to  invade  the  territories  ol  Agramenes,  a 
prince  who  lived  beyond  the  great  river  Ganges,  and  who  was 
able  to  bring  into  the  field  two  hundred  thousand  toot,  two 
thousand  elephants,  twenty  thousand  horse,  and  two  thousand 

armed  chariots. 

The  soldiers,  however,  refused  to  wander  over  those  great 
deserts  which  lay  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  more  terrible  to  them 
'  than  the  greatest  army  the  East  could  muster.  He  addressed 
them,  in  the  most  persuasive  terms,  not  to  leave  their  genera 
behind  ;  he  threatened  them,  that  he  would  take  bus  Scythian  and 
his  Persian  soUUers,  and  with  them  alone  he  would  make  con- 
quests,  worthy  of  his  name  and  of  his  glory :  but  still  the  Mace- 
doniau  soldiers  persisted,  sullen  and  inflexible ;  and  only  at  last 
complied,  after  many  persuasive  orations,  to  follow  him  towards 
the  south,  to  discover  the  nearest  ocean,  and  to  take  the  course 
ofthe  river  Indus  as  their  infallible  guide.  _        r   •  i.* 

For  this  expedition,  he  embarked,  in  a  fleet  consisting  of  eight 
hundred  vessels,  as  well  galleys,  as  boats  to  carry  the  troops  and 
provisions ;  and  after  five  days  sailing,  the  fleet  arrived  where 
the  Hydaspes  and  the  Acesines  mixed  their  streams.  There,  the 
ships  were  very  much  shattered,  because  those  rivers  unite  with 
prodigious  rapidity.  At  last,  he  came  to  the  country  ofthe  Oxy- 
drace  and  the  Mallis,  the  most  valiant  people  in  the  East ;  how- 
ever  Alexander  defeated  them  in  several  engagements,  dispos- 
sessed  them  of  their  strong  holds,  and  at  last  marched  against 
their  capital  city,  where  the  greater  part  of  their  forces  haA 

retired. 

It  was  upon  this  occasion,  that,  seizing  a  scaling  ladder,  him- 
gelf  the  first,  he  mounted  the  wall,  followed  only  by  two  of  his 
**i-     i.  His  attendants,  believing  him  to  be  m  danger,  mounted 
^•iftly,  to  succour  him;  but  the  ladder  breaking,  he  was  left 
alone    It  was  now,  that  his  rashness  became  his  safety ;  for,  leap- 
lug  from  the  wall  into  the  city,  which  was  crowded  with  enemies, 
Bword  in  hand,  he  repulsed  such  as  were  nearest,  and  even  killed 
the  general  who  advanced  in  the  throng.  Thus,  with  his  back  to 
a  tree  that  happened  to  be  near,  he  received  all  the  darts  of  the 
enemy  in  a  shield,  and  kept  even  the  boldest  at  a  distance ;  at  labt, 
an  Indian  discharging  an  arrow  of  three  feet  long,  it  pierced  his 
coat  of  mail  and  his  right  breast,  and  so  great  a  quantity  of  blood 
issued  from  the  wound,  that  he  dropped  his  arms,  and  lay  as  dead. 
The  Indian  came  up,  to  strip  him,  supposing  him  really  what  he 
appeared ;  but  Alexander,  at  that  instant,  recalled  his  spirits,  and 
plunged  the  dagger  into  his  side.  By  this  time,  a  part  ofthe  king  s 
attendants  came  to  his  succour,  and,  forming  themselves  round 
Mi  body,  till  his  soldiers  without  found  mean«  of  bursting  th« 


OF  GREECE. 


313 


gates,  saved  him,  and  put  all  the  inhabitants,  without  distinction, 
to  the  sword  . 

The  wound,  which,  at  first,  seemed  dangerous,  having,  in  the 
gpace  of  six  or  seven  days,  a  most  favourable  appearance,  Alex 
ander  mounted  his  horse,  and  showed  himself  to  the  army,  who 
seemed  to  view  him  with  insatiable  pleasure.     Thus,  continuing 
his  voyage,  and  subduing  the  country,  on  each  side,  as  he  passed 
along,  the  pilots  perceived,  from  the  softness  ofthe  breezes,  that 
the  ocean  was  near.     Nothing  so  much  astonished  the  Macedo-' 
nian  soldiers,  as  the  ebbing  and  flowing  ofthe  tide.    They  were 
amazed,  when  they  saw  it  rice  to  a  great  height,  and  overflow 
the  country,  which  they  considered  as  a  mark  of  divine  resent- 
ment. They  were  no  less  terrified,  some  hours  after,  when  they 
saw  the  river  forsake  its  banks,  and  leave  those  lands  uncovered 
which  it  had  so  lately  overflowed.  Thus,  after  a  voyage  of  nine 
months,  he  at  last  stood  upon  the  shore ;  and,  after  having  off"ered 
sacrifices  to  Neptune,  and  looked  wishfully  on  the  broad  expanse 
of  waters  befoie  him,  he  is  said  to  have  wept,  for  having  no  more 
worlds  left  to  conquer.     Here  he  put  an  end  to  his  excursion  ; 
and,  having  appointed  Nearchus  admiral  of  his  fleet,  with  orders 
to  coast  along  the  Indian  shore  as  far  as  the  Persian  gulf,  he  set 
out,  with  his  army,  for  Babylon. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  hardships  which  his  army  sustained 
in  their  return :  passing  through  a  country  destitute  of  all  sorts 
of  provision,  they  were  obliged  to  feast  on  the  beasts  of  burthen, 
and  were  forced  to  hum  those  rich  spoils,  for  the  sake  of  which 
they  had  encountered  so  many  dangers  ;  tnose  diseases  also,  that 
generally  accompany  famine,  completed  their  calamity,  and  de- 
stroyed them  in  great  numbers.  After  a  march  of  sixty  days^  they 
arrived  in  the  province  of  Gedrosia,  the  fertility  of  which  soon 
banished  from  the  minds  ofthe  soldiery  all  their  former  difiiculties. 

Alexander  passed  through  the  country,  not  with  the  military 
pomp  of  a  conqueror,  but  in  the  licentious  disguise  of  an  enthu- 
siast :  still  willing  to  imitate  Bacchus,  he  was  drawn  by  eight 
horses,  on  a  scaffold,  in  the  form  of  .t  square  stage,  where  he 
spent  the  days  and  nights  in  feasting.  Along  the  roads,  where  he 
passed,  were  placed  cas<ks  of  wine  in  great  abundance,  and  these 
(he  soldiery  drained,  in  honour  of  his  mock  deity.  The  whole 
country  echoed  with  the  sound  of  instruments,  and  the  howling 
of  Bacchanals;  who,  with  their  hair  dishevelled,  with  frantic 
mirth,  ran  up  and  down,  abandoning  themselves  to  every  kind  of 
lewdness.  This  vice  produced  one  of  a  much  more  formidable 
nature  in  the  king's  mii»d  ;  for  it  always  inflamed  his  passions  to 
cruelty,  and  the  executioner  generally  followed  the  feast. 

While  he  refreshed  his  army  in  these  parts,  Nearchus  re 
turned  from  his  expedition  along  the  coast,  and  brought  him 


■•    I 


314 


THE  HISTOKY 


strange  accounts  of  the  gold  to  be  found  in  some  islands,  and  of 
the  wonders  that  were  to  be  seen  in  others  :   he  was  thereforo 
commanded  to  make  some  furtlier  discoveries,  and  then  cntei 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Euphrates,  to  meet  the  king  at  Babylon 
He  here  also  executed  an  actof  rigorous  justice,  upon  Cleandcr 
and  others,  who  had  formerly  been  the  ministers  of  his  vengeance 
in  cutting  off  Parmenio.     Against  these  murderers,  great  com- 
plaints had  been  made,  by  the  deputies  of  the  provinces  in  which 
they  had  commanded  ;   and  such  was  the  complexion  of  thei 
crimes,  that  nothing  but  the  certain  expectation  of  Alexander'^ 
never  returning  from  India,  could  have  encourtiged  them  to  com 
mit  them.  All  men  were  glad  to  see  them  delivered  over  to  jus 
tice.  Oleander,  with  six  hundred  soldiers,  whom  he  had  employ 
ed,  were  publicly  executed ;  every  one  rejoicing,  that  the  anger  ol 
the  king  was  at  last  turned  against  the  ministers  of  his  vengeance 

As  Alexander  drew  nearer  to  Babylon,  he  visited  the  tomb  ot 
Cyrus,  in  the  city  of  Pasargada ;  and  here  he  put  a  Persian 
pnnce,  whose  name  was  Orsines,  to  death,  at  the  instigation  of 
Bagoas,  a  eunuch,  who  falsely  accused  Orsines  of  robbing  the 
tomb. 

Here,  also,  Calanus,  the  indian,  having  lived  four-score  and 
three  years,  without  ever  having  been  afflicted  with  sickness, 
now  feeling  the  approaches  of  disorder,  resolved  to  put  himself 
to  death.  Alexantler  imagined  he  might  easily  be  dissuaded  from 
his  design,  but,  finding,  in  opposition  to  all  the  arguments  he 
could  use,  that  Calanus  was  inflexible,  he  gave  orders  for  erect- 
ing a  luneral  pile  for  him,  upon  which  the  Indian  was  resolved 
to  die.  Calanus  rode  on  horseback,  to  the  foot  of  the  funeral 
pile ;  offered  up  his  prayers  to  the  gods ;  caused  libations  to  be 
performed,  and  the* rest  of  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  which 
are  practised  at  funerals  ;  cut  off  a  tuft  of  his  hair,  in  imitation 
of  victims ;  embraced  such  of  his  friends  as  were  present ;  in 
treated  them  to  be  merry  that  day,  and  to  feast  and  carouse  with 
Alexander  ;  assuring  them,  at  the  same  time,  that  he  would  soor 
see  that  prince  in  Babylon.  After  saying  these  words,  he  as 
cended,  with  the  utmost  cheerfulness,  the  funeral  pile,  laid  him- 
self down  upon  it,  and  covered  his  face  ;  and,  when  the  flame 
reached  him,  he  did  not  make  the  least  motion,  but,  with  a  pa- 
tience and  constancy  that  surprised  the  whole  army,  continued 
in  the  same  posture  in  which  he  at  first  had  laid  himself,  and 
completed  his  sacrifice,  by  dying  agreeably  to  the  strange  super- 
stitions of  the  enthusiasts  of  his  country. 

Alexander  punctually  obeyed  him,  in  his  admonitions  to  de- 
Dauchery.  A  banquet  followed  the  night  after,  in  which  Pro- 
macus  received  a  talent,  as  a  prize  for  having  drunk  the  largest 
quantity  of  wine :  he  survived  his  victory,  however,  but  thpp« 


THE  HihTORY 


315 


days,  and  of  the  rest  of  the  guests,  forty-one  died  of  their  intem- 
perance. From  Pasargada,  Alexander  proceeded  to  Susa  ;  where 
he  married  Statira,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Darius,  and  gave  her 
voungest  sister  in  marriage  to  his  favourite  Hephasstion.  Eighty 
Persian  ladies  of  rank  were  given  to  the  principal  favourites 
among  his  captains.  The  nuptials  were  solemnised  after  the  Per- 
sian manner.  He  likewise  feasted  all  the  Macedonians  who  had 
married  before  in  that  country.  It  is  related,  that  there  were 
nine  thousand  guests  at  this  feast,  and  that  he  gave  each  of  them 
a  golden  cup  for  their  libations.  Upon  this  occasion,  there  ap- 
peared at  Susa  three  hundred  young  soldiers,  dressed  in  tha 
Macedonian  manner,  whom  Alexander  intended  particularly  to 
favour,  in  order  to  check  the  licentiousness  of  his  veterans,  who 
had  but  too  just  reasons  to  murmur. 

While  Alexander  was  thus  employed  in  Persia,  a  new  com- 
motion was  excited  in  Greece.  Harpalus,  whom  Alexander  had 
appointed  governor  of  Babylon,  being  disgusted  with  his  master's 
cruelty,  and  ambitious  of  power  himself,  went  over  into  Greece, 
with  immense  sums,  which  he  raised  from  the  plundered  prison- 
ers of  Persia.  He  had  credit  enough  to  assemble  a  body  of  six 
thousand  soldiers,  and  with  these  he  landed  at  Athens :  money, 
at  that  time  being  thought  all  powerful  in  Greece,  he  lavished 
immense  sums  among  the  mercenary  orators,  whose  business  it 
was  to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  people.  Of  all  those,  Phocion 
alone,  to  whom  he  offered  seven  hundred  talents,  preserved  his 
well  known  integrity,  and  remained  inflexible.  His  disinterest- 
edness had  long  been  the  object  of  admiration,  even  in  the  time 
of  Philip.  Being  ofl'ered  a  gieat  sum  of  money,  if  not  for  his  own 
acceptance,  at  least  for  the  benefit  of  his  children,  "  If  my  chil- 
dren," cried  Phocion,  '*  resemble  me,  the  little  spot  of  ground, 
with  the  produce  of  which  I  have  hitherto  lived,  and  which  has 
raised  me  to  the  glory  you  mention,  will  be  suflicient  to  maintain 
them  ;  if  it  will  not,  I  do  not  intend  to  leave  them  wealth,  merely 
to  stimulate  and  heighten  their  luxury.'* 

Alexander,  likewise,  having  sent  him  a  hundred  talents,  Pho- 
cion asked  those  who  brought  them,  why  Alexander  sent  him  so 
great  a  sum,  and  did  not  remit  any  to  the  rest  of  the  Athenians  ? 
**  It  is,"  replied  they,  **  because  Alexander  looks  upon  you  as 
the  only  just  and  virtuous  man."  Phocion  rejoined,  "  let  him 
suffer  me  still  to  enjoy  that  character,  and  be  really  what  I  am 
taken  for."  This,  therefore,  was  not  a  character  to  be  corrupt 
ed  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  used  all  his  influence  to  prevent  the  sue 
cess  of  Harpalus,  who,  being  ordered  by  the  assembly  to  depart 
the  city,  lost  all  hopes  of  success. 

This  commotion  was  scarcely  quelled,  when  another  ensued 
m  consequence  of  a  declaration,  by  which  all  the  Macedoniani 


316 


OF  GREECE. 


OF  GKEECE. 


bn 


wlio,  from  their  age  or  infirmities,  were  UQable  to  bear  the  fa 
tigues  of  war,  should  be  sent  back  to  Greece.     With  seditious 
cries  they  unanimously  demanded  to  be  entirely  discharged  from 
his  service,  murmuring  against  him,  as  a  despiser  of  his  bravest 
troops,  and  as  a  cruel  king,  who  wanted  not  their  absence,  bul 
their  destruction.     Alexander  however,  acted  with  that  resolu 
tion  upon  this  occasion,  which  always  marked  his  character  . 
Being  seated  on  his  tribunal  of  justice,  he  rushed  among  the  pnn 
cipal  mutineers,  seized  thirteen,  and  ordered  them  to  be  imme- 
diately punished.    The  soldier?, amazed  at  his  intrepidity,  with- 
held their  complaints,  and,  with  downcast  eyes,  seemed  to  beg 
for  mercy.     "  You  desired  a  discharge,"  cried  he  ;   "go  then, 
and  publish  to  the  world,  that  you  have  left  ^our  prince  to  the 
mercy  of  strangers  ;  from  henceforth,  the  Persians  shall  be  my 
guards."     This  menace  served  only  to  increase  the  misery  and 
the  consternation  of  his  troops  ;   they  attended  him  with  tears 
and  lamentations,  till  at  last,  softened  by  their  penitence,  he  once 
more  took  them  into  favour  and  affection. 

Now  secure  from  insurrection,  he  gave  himself  up  to  mirth 
and  feasting ;  his  army  was  followed  by  all  the  ministers  of  plea- 
sure ;  he  spent  whole  nights  and  days  in  immoderate  drinking, 
and  in  one  of  these  excesses,  Hephaestion  lost  his  life.  This 
courtier  was  the  most  intimate  friend  of  Alexander.  Craterus, 
alone,  of  all  the  Macedonians,  seemed  to  dispute  this  honour  with 
him.  "  Craterus,"  as  the  king  used  to  say,  •**  loves  the  king,  but 
Hephaestion  loves  Alexander."  The  death  of  this  favourite 
threw  the  monarch  into  excessive  sorrow ;  he  seemed  to  receive 
no  consolation ;  he  even  put  to  death  the  physician  who  attended 
him,  and  the  extraordinary  funeral  honours  celebrated  at  his  ar 
rival  in  Babylon,  marked  the  greatness  of  his  affliction. 

After  various  combats,  conquests,  cruelties,  follies,  and  ex- 
cesses, Alexander  arrived  at  Babylon :  the  Chaldeans,  who  pre- 
tended to  foresee  future  events,  attempted  to  persuade  him  not  to 
enter  th^t  city.  The  Greek  philosophers,  on  the  other  hand, 
displayed  the  futility  of  their  predictions.  Babylon  was  a  theatre 
in  which  he  might  display  his  glory,  and  ambassadors,  from  all 
the  nations  he  had  conquered,  were  there  in  readiness,  to  cele- 
mte  his  triumphs.  After  making  a  most  magnificent  entry,  he 
gave  audience  to  the  ambassadors,  wiih  a  grandeur  and  dignity 
suitable  to  his  power,  yet  with  the  affability  and  politeness  of  a 
private  courtier. 

At  that  time,  he  wrote  a  letter  which  was  to  have  been  read 
publicly  in  the  assembly  at  the  Olympic  games,  whereby  the 
several  cities  of  Greece  were  commanded  to  permit  all  exiles  to 
return  into  their  native  country,  those  excepted  who  had  com- 
mitted sacrilege,  or  any  other  crimes  deserving  death  orc'erin^ 


T 


i 


A&tipater  to  employ  an  armed  force  against  such  cities  as  should 
refuse  to  obey.  This  letter  was  read  io  the  assembly.  But  the 
Athenians  and  Etolians  did  not  think  themselves  obliged  to  put 
orders  in  execution,  which  seemed  to  interfere  with  their  liberty. 

Finding  Babylon,  in  extent  and  conveniency,  supeiior  to  all 
the  other  cities  of  the  East,  he  resolved  to  make  it  the  seat  of 
his  empire  ;  and,  for  that  purpose,  was  desirous  of  adding  to  it 
all  the  ornaments  possible.  But,  though  he  was  much  employed 
in  projects  of  this  kind,  and  in  schemes  even  beyond  human 
power  to  execute,  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  such 
pleasures  as  this  magnificent  city  afforded.  He  was  often  present 
at  new  banquets,  where  he  drank  with  his  usual  intemperance. 

On  a  particular  occasion,  having  spent  the  whole  night  in  a 
debauch,  a  second  was  proposed :  he  accepted  the  invitation, 
and  drank  to  such  excess,  that  he  fell  upon  the  floor,  to  appear- 
ance dead ;  and,  in  this  lifeless  manner,  was  carried,  a  sad  s}>ec- 
tade  of  debauchery,  to  his  palace.  The  fever  continued^  with 
some  intervals,  in  which  he  gave  the  necessary  orders  for  the 
sailing  of  the  fleet,  and  the  marching  of  the  land  forces,  bemg 
persuaded  he  should  soon  recover.  But,  at  last,  finding  himself 
past  all  hopes,  and  his  voice  beginning  to  fail,  he  gave  his  rmg 
to  Perdiccas,  with  orders  to  convey  his  corpse  to  the  temple  of 
Ammon.  ^ 

He  struggled,  however,  with  death, for  some  time,  and  raismg 
himself  upon  his  elbow,  he  gave  his  hand  to  the  soldiers,  who 
pressed  to  kiss  it.  Being  then  asked  to  whom  he  would  leave 
his  empire,  he  answered,  "  To  Ibe  most  worthy. ^^  Perdiccas 
inquiring  at  what  time  he  should  pay  him  divine  honours  he  re- 
plied, "  When  you  are  happy^  With  these  words,  he  expired, 
being  thirty-two  years  and  eight  months  old,  of  which  he  had 
reigned  twelve,  with  more  fortune  than  virtue. 

In  whatever  light  we  view  this  monarch,  we  shall  have  little 
to  admire,  and  less  to  imitate.  That  courage  fir  which  he  was 
celebrated,  is  biit  a  subordinate  virtue  ;  that  fortune  which  still 
attended  him,  was  but  an  accidental  advantage ;  that  discipline 
which  prevailed  in  his  army,  was  produced  and  cultivated  by 
his  father ;  but  his  intemperance,  his  cruelty,  his  vanity,  his 
passion  for  useless  conquests,  were  all  his  own.  His  victories, 
however,  served  to  crown  the  pyramid  of  Grecian  glory  :  they 
served  to  show  to  what  degree  the  arts  of  peace  can  promote 
those  of  war. 

In  this  picture,  we  view  a  combination  of  petty  states,  by  the 
arts  of  refinement,  growing  more  than  a  match  for  the  rest  of 
the  world  united,  and  leaving  mankind  an  example  of  the  supe 
riority  of  intellect  over  brutal  force.     After  the  death  of  this 
nonarch,  Greece  was  considered  rather  as  a  seminary  for  the 


818  THE  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 

education  and  promotion  of  the  laws  of  other  nations,  than  a  ron 
federacy  for  enforcing  and  promulgating  their  own. 

The  successors  of  Alexander  seized  upon  parUcular  parts  o! 
his  extensive  empire,  and  what  he  gained  with  much  fatigue  and 
daneer,  became  a  prey  to  men  who  sheltered  their  ambition 
under  the  sanction  and  glory  of  his  name.  They  had  been  taught 
by  him  a  lesson  of  pride  ;  and,  as  he  would  never  suffer  an  equal 
his  numerous  successors  could  not  think  of  admitting  a  superior 

They  continued  their  disputes  for  dominion,  until,  in  some 
measure,  they  destroved  each  other ;  and,  as  no  governments 
were  ever  worse  conducted,  than  theirs,  so  no  period  of  history 
was  ever  left  in  such  darkness,  do  jbt,  and  confusion.  The  chil- 
dren  and  relations  of  Alexander,  who  became  successively  prison- 
ers in  different  hands,  all  miserably  perished :  nor  was  thera 
any  cessation  of  crimes  and  calamities,  or  any  permanent  settle- 
ment of  the  provinces,  until  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  m  Phrygia,  con 
firmed  Ptolemy  in  the  possession  of  Egypt,  and  Seleucus  in  that 
of  Upper  Asia.  The  issue  of  the  same  battle  i)ut  Cassander  in 
possession  of  Macedon  and  Greece  ;  and  Lysimachus  of  several 
proiince^  of  Lower  Asia,  and  Thrace. 


THE  END. 


4 


VOCiBULARY 

Of  Proper  Namely  contained  in  this  History  ^  accentuatedyin  Of  dm 
to  iho^  their  right  pronunciation. 


A. 

Aby'dos, 

Acade'mus, 

Acha^'menes, 

Achai'a, 

Achil'les, 

Achi'vi, 

Acrop'olis, 

Adiman'thus, 

Adme'tus, 

iEgi'na, 

iE'gos  Pot'amofi 

^olia, 

iEs'chines, 

ifils'chylus, 

iEto'lia, 

Agas'icles, 

Agesila'us, 

A'gis, 

Agrigen'tum, 

Alcibi'ades, 

Alexan'der, 

Amphic'tyon, 

Amphip'olis, 

Anaxag'oras, 

Antal'cides, 

Antig'onus, 

Antioch'us, 

Antip'ater, 

Antis'thenes, 

Apollodo'rus, 

ApoIIo'nius, 


Arbe'la, 

Arcad'ia, 

Archela'us, 

Archida'mus, 

Archime'des, 

Areop'agus, 

Arginu'sae, 

Ar'gos, 

Ariae'us, 

Aristag'oraS; 

Aristi'des, 

Aristode'mus 

Aristome'nes, 

Aristopha'nes 

Aristot'le, 

Artaba'nus, 

Artaba'zus, 

Artapher'nes, 

Artaxer'xes, 

Artemi'sia, 

Artemis  lum, 

Assyr'ia, 

A'thos, 

At'talus, 

At'tica. 

B. 

Bab'ylon, 

Be'lus, 

Boeo'tia, 

Bithyn'ia, 

Bos'phorus, 


Dras'ldas, 

Buceph'alus, 

Bjzan'tium. 

C. 

Cad'mus, 

Cala'nus, 

'Jallic'rates, 

Callicrat'idas, 

Callis'thenes, 

Camby'ses, 

Cappado'cia, 

Ca'ria, 

Cata'na, 

Cau'casus, 

Ce'crops, 

Chab'rias, 

Chalce«don, 

Charila'us, 

Ch3Bron3e'a,> 

Cheronae'a,  5 

Chersone'sus, 

Clazome'nse, 

Cleom'brotus, 

Cleom'enes, 

Co'drus, 

Corcy'ra, 

Coronae'a, 

Cynax'a. 

D. 
Dari'us, 
Delphi,  {Btl'fi) 
Dem'ades, 
Demara'tus, 
Demos'thenes, 
Diog'enes, 
Dra'co. 

E. 

Gcbat'ana, 

Epamiiion'das, 

Eph'esus, 

Eph'ori, 

£pi'ruS| 


Epbial'tcs, 

Epial'tes, 

Ere'tria, 

Euboe'a, 

Eu'menes, 

Eu'nomus, 

Eu'phrates, 

Eurip'ides, 

Eurybi'ades, 

Eurym'edoii, 

Evag'oras. 

G. 

Gran'icus, 
Gylip'pus. 


H. 

Halicarnas'sus, 

Har'pagus, 

Hel'ena, 

Hellenes, 

Hellespont, 

Hel'ols,  > 

Helo'tes,5 

Hephaes'lioiii 

Heracli'dae, 

Her'cules, 

Hermoc'rates 

Hippar'chus, 

Hip'pias, 

Ho'mer, 

Hydas'pes. 

I. 

lUyr'icum, 
lo'nia, 
Ilho'mc, 
Ju'piter. 

L. 

Laced  ae'mon, 
Laco'nia, 
Lam'achus, 
Lamp'sacus, 
Leon  id  as, 


(  321  ) 


Leon'tium, 

Leonti'ades, 

Leotych'ides, 

Les'bos, 

Lycur'gus, 

Lysan'der, 

Ly  sides, 

Lysim'achua 

M. 

M^'cedou,     > 

Macedo'nia,5 

Magnesia, 

Mantine'a, 

Mar'athon, 

Mardo'nius, 

Me'dia, 

Me'gacles, 

Mega'ra, 

Mesopotamia, 

Messe'ne,> 

Messe'na,$ 

Messe'nia, 

Mile'tus, 

Milti'ades, 

Miner'va, 

Mithrida'tes, 

Mityle'ne,  / 

Mityle'n3e,3 

Myca'le, 

Myce'ne. 

N. 
Naupac'tus, 
Nicias. 

O. 

Olym'piad. 

P. 

Pamphyl'ia, 
Panathense'a, 
Parme'nio, 
Parnas'sus, 


Parthe'niaBi 

Par'thia, 

Pausanlas, 

Pelas'gi, 

Pelop'idas, 

Peloponne'suSy 

Per'diccas, 

Perian'der, 

Pericles, 

Persep'olis, 

Phamabaz'us, 

Phi'locles, 

Philopce'meSi 

Pho'cion, 

Pho'cis, 

Phoebi'das, 

Phoenicia, 

Phrynlcus, 

Pirx'us, 

Pisan'der, 

Pisis'tratus, 

Pit'tacus, 

Platae'a, 

Plato, 

Plemmyrluin 

Plu'tarch, 

Po'rus, 

Potidae'a, 

Pythag'oras. 

R. 
Roxa'na. 

S. 

Sal'amis, 

Ses'tos, 

Soc'rates, 

Solon, 

Spar'ta, 

Stati'ra, 

Syria. 

T. 

Tan'agra, 
Tcgy'ra, 


(  322  ) 


Ten'edos, 

Tha'les, 

Thebes,  {ThebSy) 

The'bse, 

Themis'tocles« 

Thcram'enes, 

Thermop'yls, 

Thes'saly, 

Thrasyb'ulus, 

Thucyd'ides, 

Tigra'nes, 

Timocle'a, 

Tissaphcr'ctt 


Treb  isond, 

Trceze'ne, 

Tyrtx'us. 

X. 

Xan'tippe, 
Xan'thippu% 
Xen'ophon, 
Xer'xes. 

Z. 

Zacyn'tftuc, 
Ze'no. 


r 


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LUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


%%^ 


Goldsmith 


d-iBTl 


The  Grecian  history 

I        . 


eiAOEISf 


JUN2  11988 


r.>i .  rca-KMT  ORDERED 


Rtrl 


.>  X-. 


MAR20t989 


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